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Psychology - Paper 2 > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Define psychology

A

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in given contexts

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2
Q

Define science

A

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to develop general laws.

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3
Q

Define introspection

A

A systematic method used to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.

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4
Q

Who opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychological enquiry?

A

Wilhelm Wundt

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5
Q

Where was Wundt’s lab and when did he open it?

A
  • Leipzig, Germany - Opened in 1879
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6
Q

Why was Wundt opening his lab significant?

A

It marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots.

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7
Q

What was Wundt’s aim?

A

To try to analyse the nature of human consciousness (introspection)

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8
Q

Detail some of Wundt’s investigations

A
  • He trained participants to introspect (ie: objectively observe their own thoughts and sensations) - He then placed a stimulus before the participants (ie: a metronome) - He had the report on their thoughts, images and sensations in response to it
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9
Q

How does Wundt’s research link to structuralism?

A
  • He isolated the structure of consciousness - The stimuli were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants
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10
Q

Explain how Wundt’s method of investigating human experience could be considered scientific

A
  • It was highly controlled (the stimulus would last a specific period of time, the responses were carefully recorded, the participants were carefully trained) - It was replicable
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11
Q

Explain how Wundt’s method of investigating human experience could be considered unscientific

A
  • It could be repeated over and over again, but responses were so varied that no general principles could be established
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12
Q

What was psychology considered to be from the 17th to the 19th century?

A
  • A branch of the broader discipline of philosophy - Known as experimental philosophy
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13
Q

What two approaches dominated the 1900s until around the 1950s?

A
  • Behaviourism - Psychodynamic
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14
Q

Who founded the psychodynamic approach?

A

Freud

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15
Q

Summarise the psychodynamic approach

A
  • Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour - Freud developed person-centred therapy: psychoanalysis - Was unscientific and contains falsifiable concepts
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16
Q

Name the influential behaviourists

A
  • John B. Watson - Skinner
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17
Q

Summarise the behaviourist approach and why it emerged

A
  • The value of introspection was questioned at the beginning of the 20th century because it produced subjective data that can’t help establish general laws - Behaviourists proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured - Behaviourists focus on behaviours they could see and used carefully controlled experiments
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18
Q

When was the cognitive revolution?

A

1950s and 60s

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19
Q

What two approaches were developed in the 1950s?

A
  • Humanistic - Cognitive
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20
Q

Who developed the humanistic approach?

A
  • Rogers - Maslow
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21
Q

Summarise the humanistic approach

A
  • It rejected the behaviourist and psychodynamic view that human behaviour is determined by outside factors - Emphasises the importance of self determination and free will - Rejected science
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22
Q

Summarise the cognitive approach and why it was developed

A
  • The digital revolution of the 1950s allowed psychologists to liken the mind to a computer - Involved testing their predictions about memory and attention with experiments - Made the study of the mind scientific again - Led to the development of neuroscience
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23
Q

What approach was developed in the 1960s?

A

Social learning theory

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24
Q

Who developed social learning theory?

A
  • Bandura
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25
Q

Summarise social learning theory

A
  • Draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning - Provided a bridge between the newly established cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism
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26
Q

What approach was developed in the 1980s?

A

Biological approach

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27
Q

Summarise the biological approach and why it was created

A
  • Advances in technology increased understanding of the brain and biological processes - Links to cognitive neuroscience
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28
Q

What discipline emerged at the eve of the 21st century?

A

Cognitive neuroscience

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29
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience investigate?

A

How biological structures influence mental states

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30
Q

What types of behaviour is the behaviourist approach only interested in studying?

A

Behaviour that can be observed and measured.

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31
Q

Why do behaviourists reject introspection?

A

It involves too many concepts that are vague and difficult to measure.

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32
Q

Why were animals able to replace humans in experiments for the behaviourist approach?

A

After Darwin, behaviourists suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species.

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33
Q

What are the two forms of learning identified by behaviourists?

A

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

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34
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

Classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli together so we begin to respond to one in the same way we already respond to the other.

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35
Q

Who experimented with classical conditioning?

A

Pavlov

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36
Q

Outline Pavlov’s experiment into classical conditioning

A

He gave his dog food and it salivated. He then rang a bell when he gave the dog food. Eventually, the dog salivated at the bell alone.

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37
Q

What was the food in Pavlov’s experiment?

A

The unconditioned stimulus

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38
Q

What was the unconditioned response in Pavlov’s experiment?

A

The dog salivating at the food

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39
Q

What was the bell in Pavlov’s experiment introduced as and what did it turn into?

A

Introduced as: neutral stimulus Turned into: conditioned stimulus

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40
Q

What is the conditioned response in Pavlov’s experiment?

A

The dog salivating at the sound of a bell

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41
Q

Which psychologist contributed to the definition of operant conditioning?

A

Skinner

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42
Q

What did Skinner say operant conditioning is?

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

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43
Q

What are the four types of consequence in operant conditioning?

A
  • Positive reinforcement - Negative reinforcement - Positive punishment - Negative punishment
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44
Q

What does reinforcement do?

A

Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

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45
Q

What does punishment do?

A

Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

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46
Q

What does positive reinforcement entail?

A

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase/maintain the behaviour

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47
Q

What does negative reinforcement entail?

A

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase/maintain the behaviour

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48
Q

What does positive punishment entail?

A

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behaviour

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49
Q

What does negative punishment entail?

A

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the behaviour

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50
Q

Give an example of positive reinforcement

A

Being given a lollipop

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51
Q

Give an example of negative reinforcement

A

Avoiding doing chores

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52
Q

Give an example of positive punishment

A

Get a smack

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53
Q

Give an example of negative punishment

A

Confiscation of your phone

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54
Q

What was Skinner’s experiment called?

A

The Skinner Box

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55
Q

Outline the method of the Skinner Box experiment

A
  • Used rats and sometimes pigeons - Put them in specially designed cages - Every time a rat activated a lever (or the pigeon pecked a disk) it was rewarded with a food pellet - From then on the animal would perform the behaviour - He also showed that rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus (eg: an electric shock)
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56
Q

Name the strengths of the behaviourist approach

A
  • Scientific credibility - Real life applications
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57
Q

Name the weaknesses of the behaviourist approach

A
  • Too mechanistic - Environmentally deterministic
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58
Q

Why is behaviourism scientifically credible?

A
  • It used controlled investigations which produced patterns that could be created into the general law of conditioning - Science should produce patterns/principles that can be applied to anyone - It emphasised the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication
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59
Q

Give some examples of real life application of behaviourism

A
  • Operant conditioning: token economy systems have been used in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric hospitals. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged with privileges. - Classical conditioning: systematic desensitisation is used to treat phobias. It counters the initial conditioning (the phobic stimulus paired with a traumatic event)
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60
Q

How is the behaviourist approach mechanistic?

A
  • Animals and humans are seen as passive and machine like responders to environment - It suggests that our behaviours are merely reflex actions to what happens in our environment
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61
Q

Why is being too mechanistic a weakness of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • It undermines the complexity of human beings - It ignores factors such as cognition and emotion which drive our behaviour - There is evidence that the cognitive processes mediate between exposure to our environment and the behaviour we produce. The behaviourist approach doesn’t account for this.
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62
Q

How is the behaviourist approach environmentally deterministc?

A
  • It suggests that environmental factors (which are out of our control) determine our behaviour
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63
Q

Why is it a weakness that the behaviourist approach is environmentally deterministic?

A
  • It suggests that we do not consciously control ourselves and undermines the notion of free will - It ultimately presents a pessimistic view of human nature which isn’t in line with our everyday experiences of making choices
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64
Q

Who founded social learning theory?

A

Bandura

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65
Q

How does social learning theory state we learn?

A
  • Through observation and limitation of others within a social context - We learn directly (through classical and operant conditioning) but also indirectly
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66
Q

Define vicarious reinforcement

A

Seeing others being reinforced or punished for a behaviour influences our motivation to copy that behaviour. This learning can happen indirectly (or vicariously).

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67
Q

What did Bandura define mediational processes as?

A

The cognitive factors (ie: internal mental processes) which mediate between the observation of a behaviour and the acquisition (copying of) the behaviour. These mediational processes determine whether or not you will copy someone else’s behaviour.

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68
Q

Name the four mediational processes identified by Bandura

A
  1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor reproduction 4. Motivation
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69
Q

What is involved in the mediational process: attention?

A

Noticing the behaviour

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70
Q

What is involved in the mediational process: retention?

A

Remembering the behaviour

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71
Q

What is involved in the mediational process: motor reproduction?

A

Our perceived ability to perform the behaviour

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72
Q

What is involved in the mediational process: motivation?

A

The extent to which you want to perform the behaviour

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73
Q

What is identification?

A

The process in which a person patterns his thoughts, feelings, or actions after another person who serves as a model.

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74
Q

How is identification usually investigated in research?

A

By measuring how similar the participant feels they are to their role model

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75
Q

What is modelling?

A

When someone acts as a role model for which someone can copy behaviours from.

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76
Q

Why might someone model their behaviour on someone else’s?

A
  • They look up to them - Others have a good reaction to it - They have high status
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77
Q

Outline Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

A
  • He recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll - The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it - When the children were later observed playing with various toys, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non aggressive adult
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78
Q

Name the strengths of social learning theory

A
  • It is more holistic than other approaches - Explains cultural differences in behaviour
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79
Q

Name the weaknesses of social learning theory

A
  • Over reliance on evidence from lab studies - Underestimating the influence of biological factors
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80
Q

How does social learning theory explain cultural differences in behaviour?

A
  • It accounts for how children learn from other individuals around them, as well as through media - It explains how cultural norms are transmitted through certain societies - Eg: gender norms
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81
Q

How is social learning theory more holistic than other approaches such as the behaviourist approach?

A

It explains behaviour from more than one level of explanation: - The lower ‘stimulus and response’ level - The higher level of actual cognitive processes

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82
Q

Why is social learning being holistic a strength?

A
  • It provides a more comprehensive view of where behaviours come from - It acknowledges the complexity of behaviour
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83
Q

Why is the fact that many of Bandura’s experiments were lab experiments a weakness?

A
  • They are contrived - Participants may respond to demand characteristics - The research can’t be applied to children’s everyday life behaviour
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84
Q

How are biological factors underestimated by social learning theory?

A
  • The bobo doll experiment consistently found that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the specifics of the experimental situation - This could be explained by hormonal factors (ie: difference in testosterone levels)
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85
Q

How does the cognitive approach say that mental processes should be studied?

A

Scientifically

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86
Q

What are internal mental processes?

A

The private operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response

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87
Q

Give examples of internal mental processes that the cognitive approach studies

A
  • Memory - Attention - Problem solving - Emotion - Intelligence - Learning - Perception
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88
Q

What does it mean to make an inference?

A

To draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

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89
Q

How is the cognitive approach scientific?

A
  • It is more objective as results are simple, clear and quantitative - It has produced general laws and principles (eg: memory can only hold 7+/-2 pieces of info)
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90
Q

Name 2 ways of studying internal mental processes

A
  • Use of theoretical models - Use of computer models
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91
Q

Name three qualities of a theoretical model

A
  • The theories are in stages (and so are often presented as diagrams) - They are testable (you can use them to make inferences about internal mental processes by absorbing behaviour) - You can change or refine them if the observed behaviour doesn’t fit the model
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92
Q

Give an example of a theoretical model

A

The information processing approach, which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multistore model.

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93
Q

What is involved in a computer model?

A
  • The mind is compared to a computer by suggesting that there are similarities in the way information is processed. - These models compare the central processing unit to the brain, coding to turning information into a usable format and the use of stores to hold information
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94
Q

List how computers can be compared to the mind

A
  • Input - Process - Output - Hardware - Software - Memory storage
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95
Q

What is a schema?

A
  • A package of ideas, information and expectations of the world around us, developed through experience - They act as mental framework for for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
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96
Q

Why are schemas useful?

A
  • They allow us to process a lot of information quickly so we are not overwhelmed by environmental stimuli - They allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment
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97
Q

Why can schemas be negative?

A
  • They can cause us to exclude relevant or important information to focus instead only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs - They can contribute to stereotypes - They make it difficult to retain new information that doesn’t confirm our established existence in the world
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98
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

The scientific study of the biological processes that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes.

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99
Q

Give three examples of how the brain is linked with cognition

A
  • The frontal lobe is responsible for intelligence, decision making, planning, judgement, logical thinking - The parahippocampal gyrus is responsible for processing unpleasant emotions - Semantic memories are stored in the hippocampus
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100
Q

Name three practical applications of the cognitive approach

A
  • Identifying which brain structures/neural pathways are associated with which cognitions (internal mental processes) - Identifying brain structures/neurotransmitters which are associated with psychological disorders, which opens up the way for treatment - Artificial intelligence: attempting to replicate neural processes in a machine in order to stimulate human-like cognition
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101
Q

Name the strengths of the cognitive approach

A
  • It is scientific - Practical applications - It is founded on soft determinism
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102
Q

Name the weakness of the cognitive approach

A
  • It is too mechanistic
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103
Q

How is cognitive psychology scientific?

A
  • It employs highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers can infer cognitive processes - Lab studies are frequently used - The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled biology and cognitive psychology to come together in a scientific manner
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104
Q

What is a counterpoint to the strength of cognitive psychology being scientific?

A
  • It relies on the inference of mental processes rather than direct observation of behaviour so it can sometimes suffer from being too abstract - Lab studies often use artificial stimuli
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105
Q

Give some examples of practical applications of the cognitive approach

A
  • The cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in psychology today - It’s made an important contribution to artificial intelligence and the development of robots - Cognitive principles are used to treat depression and improve the reliability of eyewitness testimony
106
Q

What is soft determinism?

A

The view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can exert our free will at times

107
Q

What is hard determinism?

A

The view that all our behaviour is determined by factors other than our will, such as conditioning and genes

108
Q

Why is being founded on soft determinism rather than hard determinism a benefit of the cognitive approach?

A

It is a more realistic approach

109
Q

What does the mechanistic approach imply?

A

That the human mind is similar to a ‘thinking machine’ (ie: a computer)

110
Q

What are the criticisms of machine reductionism?

A
  • It ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this affects our ability to process information - Eg: the human memory can be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
111
Q

Define the biological approach

A

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function

112
Q

What assumptions does the biological approach make?

A
  • To understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body (ie: genes, neurochemistry, nervous system) - The mind lives in the brain, meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis - Many, if not all, behaviours and cognitive processes can be explained by evolution
113
Q

What is neurochemistry?

A

It refers to the action of chemicals in the brain

114
Q

What does much of our thought and behaviour rely on?

A

Chemical transmission in the brain that occurs using neurotransmitters

115
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical messengers that transmit signals around the brain

116
Q

What has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder?

A

An imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain

117
Q

Give an example of how an imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain might cause mental disorders

A
  • There are low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD - There is an overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
118
Q

What is someone’s genotype?

A

Their genetic material

119
Q

What is someone’s phenotype?

A

Their genetic expression (observable, physical and behavioural characteristics)

120
Q

What two factors influence our phenotype?

A
  • Genotype - The environment
121
Q

What is the diathesis stress model?

A

Someone may have a genetic predisposition for mental illness, but they might only develop it if something in their environment ‘triggers’ it (turns genetic expression up)

122
Q

Apply the diathesis stress model to heart disease

A

One may have genes that predispose you to heart disease but environmental factors may turn genetic expression down (eg: a healthy, low stress lifestyle)

123
Q

Name the three study types used to investigate the genetic basis for behaviour

A
  • Family - Twin - Adoption
124
Q

What are family studies?

A

When psychologists obtain a sample of people with a particular characteristic and see if they have a family history of it

125
Q

What have family studies shown in the relationship between genes and schizophrenia?

A

The more genes you share with a schizophrenic family member, the higher chance you have of developing it

126
Q

What are identical twins also known as?

A

Monozygotic twins

127
Q

What are non-identical twins also known as?

A

Dizygotic twins

128
Q

What is a concordance rate?

A

The extent to which twins share the same characteristic

129
Q

What percentage of DNA do monozygotic twins share?

A

100%

130
Q

What percentage of DNA do dizygotic twins share?

A

50%

131
Q

What did McCartney et al find?

A
  • The correlation for intelligence was 0.81 for monozygotic twins - The correlation for intelligence was 0.59 for dizygotic twins
132
Q

Who looked at twin studies focused on intelligence?

A

McCartney et al (1990)

133
Q

What does McCartney et al’s research show?

A
  • Twins who shared 100% of genetic (MZ) had the most similar intelligence scores - Shared genetics leads to similar characteristics such as intelligence
134
Q

Who do adoption studies look at?

A

Rare cases in which twins have been separated at birth

135
Q

Who studied adopted twins?

A

Bouchard et al (1990)

136
Q

What did Bouchard et al study?

A

Adult identical twin pairs separated at a mean age of 5 months

137
Q

What did Bouchard et al find?

A

The correlation for IQ for these twins was 0.75

138
Q

How does Bouchard et al’s study provide strong evidence for the role of genetics on behaviour?

A
  • The twins grew up in complete different environments but still mostly had similar IQs - Genetics are stronger than environment
139
Q

How could environment still have played a role in the adoption studies?

A
  • Genetics affect their behaviour, which in turn affects their environment (ie: both will be treated a certain way if they are shy) - People who decide to adopt would probably be similar and have the same amount of money
140
Q

Define evolution

A

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations to better adapt to their environment

141
Q

Name the two forms of selection involved in evolution

A
  • Natural selection - Sexual selection
142
Q

Outline natural selection

A
  • Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations - This is because individuals that have better characteristics will live longer so will most likely produce offspring
143
Q

Outline sexual selection

A

If an individual has more attractive qualities then they are more likely to attract a mate to produce offspring with

144
Q

Explain why phobias and other anxiety disorders might be a product of evolution

A
  • Avoiding things that are dangerous helps us to survive - General anxiety can alert us to things that may go wrong
145
Q

Explain how love and closeness to other people might be a product of evolution

A
  • Grouping with others gives more skills overall - Bowlby highlighted the importance of reciprocity and synchrony, as well as infants’ use of social releasers
146
Q

Explain the evolutionary advantage of memory

A
  • Remembering sources of food and areas of danger - Memory of useful skills
147
Q

Name the strengths of the biological approach

A
  • Precise and highly scientific methods - Real life applications
148
Q

Give examples of some of the methods used to investigate the biological basis for behaviour

A
  • fMRIs - EEGs - Family and twin studies - Drug trials
149
Q

Why are scientific and precise methods of measurement a strength?

A
  • They allow us to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias - They produce reliable data
150
Q

What is the real life application of the biological approach?

A
  • Increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs - These treat serious mental illnesses like depression or schizophrenia - These drugs have revolutionised treatment for many and allow people to live with their condition
151
Q

Name the weaknesses of the biological approach

A
  • It is deterministic - Confounding variables in research
152
Q

What does it mean that the biological approach is deterministic?

A

It sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes over which we have no control

153
Q

What implications do the deterministic ideas of the biological approach have for wider society?

A
  • It may negatively affect the legal system - Offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions in law; the determinist view and the idea of a ‘criminal gene’ questions this
154
Q

How is research into the biological approach weakened by confounding variables?

A
  • Identical twins, non-identical twins and members of the same family all have genetic similarities. The biological approach argues that any similarities are down to these genetics. - These people are also exposed to similar environmental conditions, making it difficult to distinguish between nature and nurture
155
Q

Which high concordance rates can the biological approach not explain?

A

There are higher concordance rates between dizygotic twins than between ordinary siblings

156
Q

Define the psychodynamic approach

A

A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience

157
Q

What is the conscious?

A

What we are currently aware of

158
Q

How are repressed memories accessed?

A
  • During dreams or parapraxes (slips of the tongue)
159
Q

What is the unconsious?

A

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour. It also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten. We are protected from the unconscious by the conscious mind

160
Q

Give an example of paraprax

A

Calling a female teacher ‘mum’ instead of ‘miss’

161
Q

What is the preconscious?

A
  • Is situated just under the surface of our conscious mind - It contains thoughts and memories which we are not currently in conscious awareness of but that can be accessed if desired
162
Q

What 3 parts did Freud state the personality is made up of?

A
  • The Id - The Ego - The superego
163
Q

What is the id?

A
  • An unconscious drive for pleasure seeking and immediate gratification of desires - Is aggressive and sexual - Denial of these instincts leads to frustration and tension - It is entirely selfish
164
Q

When is the id present from?

A

Birth

165
Q

What is the ego?

A
  • The conscious self - Mediates between the id and superego - Is concerned with solving problems and thinking in the present moment - It employs defence mechanisms
166
Q

When does the ego develop?

A

Around the age of 2 when the young child develops reason and learns they cannot always have what they want

167
Q

What is the superego?

A
  • It represents the moral standards of the same sex parent - It is rigid, repressive and punishing - It is only partly conscious
168
Q

When does the superego form?

A
  • At the end of the phallic stage around the age of 5 - When the child internalises moral rules about right and wrong - When the child identifies with their same sex parent
169
Q

What kind of personality did Freud believe a healthy adult would have?

A

A strong ego that could balance the demands of the id and superego

170
Q

Name the 5 psychosexual stages

A
  1. The oral stage 2. The anal stage 3. The phallic stage 4. The latency stage 5. The genital stage
171
Q

Broadly speaking, what occurs in each psychosexual stage?

A

Infants go through stages in which different parts of the body are the source of physical pleasure

172
Q

What happens if children receive too little or too much physical pleasure during a psychosexual stage?

A
  • A fixation occurs - The adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which the fixation occurred
173
Q

When does the oral stage occur?

A

0 - 1 years

174
Q

What is the erogenous area of the oral stage?

A

Mouth

175
Q

If a child becomes fixated in the oral stage, what behaviours might they show as an adult?

A
  • Oral fixation - Smoking - Biting nails - Sarcastic - Critical
176
Q

How might fixation occur in the oral stage?

A
  • Orally receptive: breast fed for too long - Orally aggressive: not breast fed enough
177
Q

When is the anal stage?

A

18 months - 3 years

178
Q

What is the erogenous area during the anal stage?

A

The anus

179
Q

How do children gain pleasure during the anal stage?

A

Withholding and expelling faeces

180
Q

If a child becomes fixated in the anal stage, what behaviours might they show as an adult?

A
  • Anal retentive (held faeces in): perfectionist obsessive - Anal expulsive (could poo whenever): thoughtless, messy
181
Q

How might fixation occur in the anal stage?

A
  • Parents weren’t encouraging enough during potty training
182
Q

When is the phallic stage?

A

3 - 5 years

183
Q

What is the erogenous area during the phallic stage?

A

It is all unconscious

184
Q

What two complexes are present during the phallic stage?

A
  • Oedipus - Electra
185
Q

What is the oedipus complex?

A

The son is sexually attracted to the mother and sees the father as the villain

186
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

The daughter believes her mother has castrated her and wants her father to give her a baby to substitute for a penis

187
Q

Why is the phallic stage crucial to the formation of the superego?

A

The child needs to identify with their same sex parent for the superego to develop

188
Q

If a child becomes fixated in the phallic stage, what behaviours might they show as an adult?

A

Being narcissistic or reckless

189
Q

When is the latency stage?

A

6 - 12 years

190
Q

What does the latency stage focus on?

A

Developing same sex friendships

191
Q

What happens to fixations during the latency stage?

A

They are dormant and not yet manifested

192
Q

When is the genital stage?

A

From the onset of puberty into adulthood

193
Q

What is the erogenous area during the genital stage?

A

The genitals

194
Q

What is the main source of pleasure during the genital stage?

A

Experiencing sexual pleasure with a partner

195
Q

What happens to fixations during the genital stage?

A

They will start to manifest themselves after puberty

196
Q

Name the defence mechanisms that the ego imposes to balance the id and superego

A
  • Denial - Repression - Displacement
197
Q

Why are defence mechanisms unhealthy?

A
  • They are not long term solutions - Often involve some from of distortion of reality
198
Q

What is denial?

A

Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality

199
Q

What is repression?

A

Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

200
Q

What is displacement?

A

Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

201
Q

Name the strengths of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • Real world application - Explanatory power
202
Q

What are the real-world applications of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • It introduced the idea of psychotherapy - Freud’s therapy: psychoanalysis, was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically - Psychoanalysis helps clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind to be dealt with - Psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern day ‘talking therapies’
203
Q

Why might Freudian therapy not apply to all mental disorders?

A
  • Psychoanalysis is not appropriate for those experiencing more serious mental disorders - Eg: Schizophrenia can lead to people losing their grip on reality so sufferers would be unable to articulate their thoughts in the required fashion
204
Q

Outline the explanatory power of Freud’s research

A
  • It was the key force in psychology (alongside behaviourism) for the first half of the 20th century - It had been used to explain phenomena such as personality development the origins of psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity - It draws attention to the connection between experiences in childhood and later development
205
Q

Name the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • Weak case study evidence - Psychic determinism
206
Q

What weak case study evidence did Freud use?

A
  • Little Hans - He had a phobia of horses, particularly of being bitten by one - Freud interpreted this as misplaced castration anxiety towards his father due to experiencing the Oedipus complex (ie: the horse’s big penis makes Hans scared that his dad will take away his penis) - This is very weak evidence because it is highly subject to researcher bias and also Freud was talking out of his ass
207
Q

How is Freud’s approach deterministic?

A
  • He states that there are psychic forces outside of our control that determine our behaviour - The id and superego are unconscious psychic forces that determine our behaviour and development
208
Q

Why is determinism a weakness?

A
  • It presents a pessimistic view of human nature - It suggests that we are ultimately not in control of ourselves and therefore cannot change for the better - It is unpalatable
209
Q

Define humanistic psychology

A

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination

210
Q

What is free will?

A

The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces

211
Q

Why does the humanistic approach present a person-centred approach?

A

As active agents with free will we are all unique and psychology should concern itself with a study of subjective experience rather than general laws

212
Q

How did Maslow describe people’s needs?

A

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

213
Q

What did Maslow say our primary goal is?

A

Self actualisation

214
Q

What two types of needs are described in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A
  • Deficiency needs - Growth needs
215
Q

Name all the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (from bottom to top)

A
  • Self actualisation - Self esteem - Love and belongingness - Safety and security - Physiological needs
216
Q

What is a deficiency need?

A

When there is a lack of something, this lack motivates us to meet these needs (eg: hunger)

217
Q

What is a growth need?

A

This refers to an innate motivation to become better than we are, to reach our potential

218
Q

What is self actualisation?

A
  • The uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - The innate desire to reach our full potential
219
Q

What does personal growth involve?

A

Developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented

220
Q

When can self actualisation be reached?

A

When all four levels of Maslow’s hierarchy (the deficiency needs) have been met

221
Q

What did Rogers say about the self?

A

Everyone has a self-concept and an ideal self

222
Q

What is the self-concept?

A

The way we perceive ourselves (ie: thoughts and feelings about ourselves in relation to others)

223
Q

What is the ideal self?

A

The kind of person we wish we were

224
Q

What did Rogers say all problems in life are a result of?

A
  • The struggle to understand the self and to become the ideal self
225
Q

What did Rogers say needed to happen for personal growth to be possible?

A

Congruence: an individual’s self concept must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self. If there is incongruence, the negative feelings of self worth will make self-actualisation impossible.

226
Q

How did Rogers blame our parents for problems in adulthood?

A
  • The problems we face in adulthood such as worthlessness and low self esteem have roots in childhood - These can be blamed on a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents
227
Q

What is a condition of worth?

A

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love for their children

228
Q

Describe the characteristics of Rogers’ therapy

A
  • Client centred - Latterly person-centred - Non-directive - The client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions - The atmosphere is warm, supportive and non-judgemental
229
Q

What is the therapist’s role in counselling?

A

The therapist is only a facilitator who helps the client take control and exercise free will.

230
Q

What is the aim of person centred therapy?

A

For the client to achieve greater congruence between their self concept and their ideal self. This will increase self worth and enable them to fully function.

231
Q

What did Rogers feel it was essential for therapists to do during therapy and why?

A

To show unconditional positive regard for their patients in order to counteract the conditions of worth their parents may have demonstrated

232
Q

What 3 things should a therapist provide their client with?

A
  • Genuineness - Empathy - Unconditional positive regard
233
Q

Name the strengths of the humanistic approach

A
  • It is not reductionist - It is a positive approach
234
Q

Why is the humanistic approach not reductionist?

A

It rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components

235
Q

What is holism?

A

The idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. Humanism takes this view.

236
Q

How is the humanistic approach a positive one?

A

It sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.

237
Q

Name the weaknesses of the humanistic approach

A
  • Cultural bias - Practical applications
238
Q

How is the humanistic approach culturally biased?

A
  • Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies (ie: the US) - Countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence, so the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important to them
239
Q

Why has it been said the humanistic approach has limited application?

A

Some describe it as a loose set of abstract ideas

240
Q

Why does the humanistic approach have application?

A

Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace

241
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Psychological problems in adult life are a product of problems during development as a child

A
  • Psychodynamic
242
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Behaviour is acquired through learning and experience

A
  • Behaviourist - Social learning - Cognitive
243
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Personality consists of unconscious forces

A
  • Psychodynamic
244
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Internal mental processes influence behaviour

A
  • Cognitive - Humanistic
245
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Behaviour is a result of psychological factors outside of our control

A
  • Psychodynamic
246
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Parents play a significant role in our nurturing

A
  • Social learning - Humanistic
247
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Human beings can control their own thinking and development

A
  • Humanistic
248
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Animals can be compared to humans

A
  • Behaviourist - Biological
249
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: Biological structures influence psychological factors

A
  • Biological
250
Q

Name the approaches that fit into this category: The theories in the approach have a strong influence on therapy

A
  • Behaviourist - Biological - Psychodynamic - Humanistic
251
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from most to least scientific, objective and valid

A

SCIENTIFIC, OBJECTIVE, VALID Biological, Behaviourist Cognitive Social learning theory Psychodynamic Humanistic UNSCIENTIFIC, SUBJECTIVE, INVALID

252
Q

What does determinism propose?

A

All behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable

253
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from hard deterministic to soft deterministic

A

HARD DETERMINISTIC Psychodynamic Behaviourist Biological Social learning Cognitive SOFT DETERMINISTIC (Humanistic isn’t on here)

254
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from nature to nurture

A

NATURE Humanistic, Biological Social learning Cognitive, Psychodynamic Behaviourist NURTURE

255
Q

What is reductionism?

A

It refers to the belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts

256
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from most to least reductionist?

A

MORE REDUCTIONIST Behavioural Biological Cognitive Psychodynamic Social learning LESS REDUCTIONIST (Humanistic is holistic so isn’t on here)

257
Q

What does idiographic mean?

A

When an approach aims to understand what makes individuals unique

258
Q

What does nomothetic mean?

A

When an approach attempts to establish general laws by studying large groups of people

259
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from idiographic to nomothetic

A

IDIOGRAPHIC Humanistic Psychodynamic Behaviourist, Biological Social learning Cognitive NOMOTHETIC

260
Q

Rate the 6 approaches from most useful (in terms of implications for modern day psychology treatments and understanding) to least

A

USEFUL Behaviourist Cognitive, Humanistic Biological Social learning Psychodynamic NOT USEFUL

Psychology - Paper 2 (3 decks)

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