approaches - liv edited copy Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific study of the mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour
Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation, the aim is to discover general laws
Introspection
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her mental emotion and emotional state as a result of the examination/observation of their conscious thoughts or feelings
Wundt and introspection (1)
Around 1897 there was a man called Wilhelm Wundt who lived in Germany and decided to set up a psychology lab and from there modern psychology as we know was born
Wundt and introspection (2) what methods did he use
He used methods such as introspection to try and uncover what people were thinking and experiencing, introspection is a psychological method which involves analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally, in the 1800’s there were no brain scans or computers to enable people to explore the inside workings of the brain
Wundt and introspection (3) separation of psychology
He wanted to separate psychology from philosophy and focused on studying the mind in a much more structured and scientific way, the aim was to break conscious thoughts down into their basic elements - this was referred to as structuralism
Wundt and introspection (4) what was his claim of observation
He claimed that mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed as they occurred using introspection, eg observers might be shown an object and asked to reflect upon how they were perceiving it and used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in perception
What happened in Wundt’s studies:
Participants were presented with carefully controlled stimuli eg visual images and then would be asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing as they looked at the image, this made it possible to compare different participants’ reported in response to the same stimuli and establish general theories about mental processes and perception
Problems with introspection (1) private experiences
Behaviourists criticised Wundt’s approach as it relied on ‘private’ experiences as processes such as perception and memory are considered subjective and difficult to measure and rely on self-support
Problems with introspection (2) reliability
Wundt’s approach also failed due to the lack of reliability of his methods ie participants wouldn’t have exactly the same thoughts every time, this meant Wundt couldn’t establish general principles (which is extremely important to the scientific approach)
Wundt set up the
First psychology lab
The emergence of psychology as a science (1) 20th century; behaviourists;
By the beginning of the 20th Century the value of introspection and scientific status of introspection was being questioned by many (due to the reasons on other flashcard), behaviourists such as Watson and later Skinner believed that true scientific psychology should just study things that can be OBSERVED AND MEASURED instead of ‘private’ mental processes and began to focus on the scientific processes involved in learning
The emergence of psychology as a science - the scientific method
Refers to the use of investigative methods that are: OBJECTIVE (recorded without bias and not influenced by any other factor or other people), REPLICABLE (should be able to be replicated exactly), CONTROLLED (should be under controlled conditions) and PREDICTABLE (the results should be used to predict future behaviour) (think CROP)
The emergence of psychology as a science (2)
Many modern psychologists continue to rely on the scientific method to investigate human and animal behaviour
The emergence of psychology as a science - cognitive psychologists
See the study of mental processes as a highly scientific area within psychology and although these mental processes are ‘private’ cognitive psychologists are able to make inferences on how these work through the use of lab experiments (emerged in the 1960s, still used today in research, likens us to computers as we have inputs then there’s activity in the brain and the outputs ie behaviour)
The emergence of psychology as a science - the biological approach
Also have used the scientific method by using scanning techniques to investigate physiological processes in the brain
Ways Wundt’s early investigations were scientific:
They were controlled and used standardised procedures
Ways Wundt’s early investigations were unscientific:
They were subjective, unreliable and couldn’t establish general laws from them
Classical conditioning
Learning by association ie learning that one thing leads to another (this produces a conditioned response from a conditioned stimuli)
Why cayote ‘learn’ to be afraid of sheep
Sheep meat was laced with a drug causing immediate nausea so the cayotes learnt by association (classical conditioning) that sheep made them sick so they were afraid and stayed away from them
How classical conditioning can be used to treat people with a phobia
Conditioning them to relax so that when they think of the phobia they think (and associate it) with the relaxing situation instead of the situation in which they’re afraid so that they’re no longer phobic as anxiety and relaxation are two emotions which can’t happen at the same time
Behaviourist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning without the need to consider thoughts and feelings
Classical conditioning definition
Learning by association, occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus, the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by unlearned stimulus alone
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequence, possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated, can be positive or negative
Punishment
The application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (1) observable + measurable behaviour
The behaviourist approach rejected the vagueness of introspection, the approach isn’t concerned with observing internal mental processes but instead focuses on observable and measurable behaviour
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (2) control + objectivity + general principles
Behaviourists try and maintain control and objectivity within their research and do rely on the use of scientific, lab experiments to do this, they also believe that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species and so we can study animals to learn about human behaviour
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (3) blank slate + CC
They believe that we are all born a ‘blank slate’ and all behaviour is learned or determined by interactions and experiences in our environment, they believe that much of human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of learning called conditioning
According to the behaviourists, there are two key forms of learning or conditioning:
Classical conditioning (learning by association) and operant conditioning (learning by consequence)
Classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research
Behaviourists regard all behaviour as a response to a stimulus and believe that we are born with only a handful of innate reflexes which are stimulus response units that do not need to be learned
A stimulus is
Any thing in the environment that an organism registers
A response is
Any behaviour that the organism carries out as a consequence of a stimulus
A reflex is
A consistent connection between a stimulus and a response eg the knee jerk reaction
Example of a stimulus and a response
Pepper (stimulus) causing sneezing (response)
Classical conditioning is learning by association, the key idea is that a
New association is made between a previous stimulus and reflex response - this reflex can be positive or negative eg if a student starting uni had fun at fresher’s week and a song plays a lot she might associate that song with happy times but if she was homesick and heard the song she might associate it instead with sad times
Pavlov’s research
Classical conditioning was developed by Russian psychologist Pavlov, he revealed that dogs could be conditioned to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food, gradually his dog learned to associate the sound of the bell (stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound, thus he was able to show how neutral stimuli (in this case the bell) can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association (HAD TO BE REPEATED TILL IT BECAME THE NEW LEARNING)
Classical conditioning: girl being bullied at school
Before learning, the reflex was the unconditioned stimulus bullying and the unconditioned response fear, during learning, the association was the neutral stimulus school and the bullying causing the fear leading to after learning, where the new learning (association) was the conditioned stimulus school and the conditioned response fear
Classical conditioning diagram
UCS –> UCR NS + UCS –> UCR CS –> CR
What do we know about different species? Are there any problems with generalising classical conditioning to all species?
Different species have different capabilities to learn through the process of classical conditioning, animals are prepared to learn associations that are significant in terms of survival but unprepared to learn ones that aren’t
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - timing
He found that the association only occurs if the unconditional stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time, or around the same time as each other - if the time between presentations is too great then there will be no association made
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - stimulus generalisation
He discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - stimulus discrimination
Characteristics of the conditioned stimulus become too different to be generalised
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - extinction
If the bell (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly sounded without the food, salivation (conditioned stimulus) slowly disappears - the behaviour is extinguished
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - spontaneous recovery
The conditioned response can be extinguished and at a later time the dog will sometimes salivate to the sound of a bell
Operant conditioning - how behaviour is shaped and maintained
Learning by consequence (reinforcement and punishment)
Operant conditioning - what happens in a token economy (manages the behaviour of certain groups of people eg in education, shows the use of operant conditioning on humans)
Earning points for appropriate behaviour (eg doing something good) and losing points for inappropriate behaviour (eg doing something disruptive) which allows them to get rewards - reinforcement (the high the level in this system the better their rewards become)
Outline what is meant by operant conditioning
Learning through the consequence of behaviour, for example reinforcement or punishment, if the behaviour is followed by positive or negative reinforcement, then this increases the probability of the response being repeated, punishment means the behaviour is unlikely to be repeated
Operant conditioning - what the limitation of behaviour modification is
Problem behaviour returns outside a structures environment
Operant conditioning - types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning was used to explain how voluntary behaviours are earned, central to Skinner’s theory is the concept of reinforcement, Skinner distinguished between positive reinforcement (receiving a reward) and negative reinforcement (escaping or avoiding something unpleasant ie preventing a threat from happening) and punishment (an unpleasant consequences of behaviour)
Positive and negative reinforcement…
Increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Punishment…
Decreases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Positive reinforcement
Receiving a reward eg if you do well on a test so you’re given a treat, this principle operant conditioning makes behaviour more likely to be repeated (behaviour strengthens due to satisfaction)
Negative reinforcement
Escaping/avoiding something unpleasant eg coming home before your curfew to avoid being grounded, this principle of operant conditioning makes behaviour more likely to be repeated (strengthens a behaviour through avoidance learning)
Punishment
An unpleasant consequence of behaviour eg a child being grounded for being naughty, this principle of operant conditioning makes behaviour less likely to be repeated (behaviour weakens due to consequences)
Operant conditioning
Behaviour -> consequence (either reinforcement or punishment) -> likelihood of repetition
Skinner conducted most of his research on (1) outline of rat study
Animals such as rats or pigeons, he used a device known as a ‘Skinner Box’, he would introduce a hungry rat into the box and inside the box was a lever that when pressed would deliver a food pellet, the rat soon learned that pressing the lever would result in food (a reward), Skinner observed that as a consequence of its actions (receiving a pellet of food) the rat continued to display this new behaviour (the rat’s behaviour had been positively reinforced)
Skinner conducted most of his research on (2) steps of rat study
Rat presses lever (maybe accidentally) -> rat rewarded by the pellet of food -> rat presses the lever again in order to obtain food -> food acts as a positive reinforcement and strengthens the lever pressing behaviour
Skinner conducted most of his research on (3) altering rat study
Skinner changed the mechanism so that when the rat presses the lever, instead of receiving a food pellet it was given an electric shock to its paw, very quickly the rat stopped pressing the lever so the electric shock acted as a punishment
Skinner conducted most of his research on (4) negative reinforcement + rats
Skinner also set up the box so that the floor was electrified and the lever switched off the current, once Skinner electrified the floor the rat started to bounce about and accidentally pressed the lever the electric current was turned off and the experiment was repeated, the rat learned to press the lever when the current was on, this is an example of negative reinforcement
How a video game addiction can be explained using the behaviourist principles of operant conditioning
When playing the game if you do well you move to the next level (reward) so you keep playing so that you can keep getting the reward of getting to the next level (due to the satisfaction) so this positive reinforcement strengthens the behaviour and makes it more likely to be repeated which makes them addicted
Skinner discovered that if an animal was rewarded every time it activated the level or pecked the disk (continuous reinforcement) then
The conditioned behaviour would quickly die out and become extinct, it was revealed that a variable ratio schedule would prolong the behaviour and was most resistant to extinction, here reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are produced eg every 10, 12, 15 etc times the level is pressed
Variable ratio
Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses, this schedule prolongs the behaviour and is the most resistant to extinction
When evaluating approaches, think…
DREAMS: D - determinism vs free will, R - reductionism vs holism, E - evidence, A - applications, M - research methods and S - scientific methods and similarities and differences
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (1)
Determinism vs free will - some approaches argue were influenced by forces outside of our control ie we have little or no free will eg the biological approach claims our behaviour is determined by our genes and that we have little control over our actions but other approaches eg humanism see people as having voluntary control of their actions
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (2)
Reductionism (how we explain behaviour but this lacks emotion) vs holism - some approaches ‘break up’ behaviour into smaller components, if the approach is reductionist it’s an over simplification of complex human behaviours and processes eg the biological approach reduces complex behaviour down to chromosomes and hormones but ignores the influence of our upbringing and environment whereas other approaches eg humanism argue that human beings are best understood as a whole
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (3)
Evidence - any pieces of research that offer support for this approach and it’s theory and saying which findings of these studies are strong and which have methods which could be improved, it’s a strength of the approach if there’s supporting research
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (4)
Applications - the usefulness of the approach, the extent to which the theories have practical applications in real life and how (if they have) have they helped to advance our understanding of human not, lead to effective treatments or generated further research, if the approach’s theories have practical value and usefulness to human beings and society in general this is a strength
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (5)
Research methods - commenting on any aspect of the method used by researchers for the approach, this refers to the choice of experimental or non-experimental method (eg lab experiment, self report, case study, correlation study, etc) and the strengths and weaknesses of the methods used (eg issues such as ecological validity, control over extraneous variables, generalisability etc)
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (6)
Scientific methods - discuss whether the methods used meet reliable criteria of science AND similarities and differences - include a discussion of how the approaches are similar and different to one another
Differences between classical and operant conditioning (1)
Classical is learning by association where the behaviour becomes the new learning theorised by Pavlov (Russian) who tested it on dogs, it’s involuntary behaviour (reflexes) ie behaviour caused by a stimulus eg which could create a phobia or cure it such as by hospital relaxation (so can have positive or negative effects) WHEREAS
Differences between classical and operant conditioning (2)
WHEREAS operant is learning by consequence (reinforcement/punishment) where behaviour becomes more or less likely to be repeated which was theorised by Skinner (USA) who tested it on rats and pigeons, it’s voluntary behaviour (your choice) ie behaviour caused by a consequence which could cause an addiction or a reward eg using a token economy system which modified behaviour (so also have positive and negative effects)
John Watson (how behaviourists study behaviour)
Revolutionised psychology and established radical behaviourism, he stated that consciousness couldn’t be seen or meaningfully defined and therefore shouldn’t be studied, he thought that instead psychologists should adopt the scientific method and STUDY ONLY THINGS THAT COULD BE DIRECTLY OBSERVED AND MEASURED ie behaviour and the environmental conditions that produce it
Controlled lab experiments often use animals as subjects eg (how behaviourists study behaviour)
Pavlov’s investigation of the classical conditioning of dogs producing saliva and Skinner’s investigation of the operant conditioning of reinforcement of rats pressing a lever (to get a food pellet)
Exam tip - in an exam you may be asked to describe the research methods used by the behaviourists and also evaluate them, you’ll need to be able to
Apply what you’ve learnt in research methods about the experiment and case study to the behaviourist approach, behaviourists accept Darwin’s theory of evolution that human beings have have evolved from lower animals (all shared a common ancestor) as a result behaviourists see the basic processes of learning as being the same for all species so as a consequence animals can replace humans as experimental subjects (behaviourists have studied rats, cats, pigeons and dogs to investigate the laws of learning)
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (1)
High control of variables which means that a cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV can be established eg in Skinner’s study all variables were kept the same apart from the type or reinforcement/punishment
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (2) standardised + replication
Standardised procedures are easy to replicate so Skinner’s experiments are strictly controlled which means that the findings can be replicated to check whether the findings are reliable
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (3) direct observation
Objective data so all behaviourist experiments measure a behavioural response so are objective and can be directly observed, for example you can see if the rat has learnt by whether it presses the lever (response) to the pleasant stimuli of a food pellet
Limitations of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (use of animals)
The main limitation of behaviourist experiments are issues with generalisation as most experiments are carried out on animals and it’s questionable whether we can apply the findings to humans as humans are much more complex eg with higher mental abilities and the way humans think influences their behaviour whereas rats don’t think in this same way
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach - deterministic
Hard determinism everything’s determined by the environment (past experiences), this is a limitation as it means we lack free will but also strength as it allows us to predict behaviour and is scientific and controlled
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (1)
Deterministic - hard determinism, everything’s determined by the environment (past experiences), this is a limitation as it means we lack free will but also a strength as it allows us to predict behaviour and is scientific and controlled
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (2)
Reductionism - reduces behaviour to stimulus, response and action but limited as doesn’t consider the environment but a strength is that it’s more scientific as it’s broken down so can easily be tested
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (3)
Evidence - classical conditioning of dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell (Pavlov) and operant conditioning of rats to press a lever to receive a food pellet (Skinner)
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (4)
Applicability - classical conditioning is applied to therapy as they use systematic desensitisation eg to cure phobias by associating them with relaxation, operant conditioning is applied to behaviour shaping/modification eg circus elephants stood on their back legs or training dogs
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (5)
Method - lab study method which has a high degree of control (so this minimises extraneous variables do this gives the study high internal validity and means it can be replicated)
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (6)
Scientific nature/similarities and differences - a highly scientific approach which is a strength but it uses animals which is a limitation as they think differently to humans (they’re less complex), as it’s a highly scientific approach it dehumanises ya and takes away free will so it’s inappropriate to study humans in this way according to humanists as it loses sight of us as individuals (shouldn’t be looking for trends/generalising us in this way) but cause and effect can be established as it’s highly controlled which also means behaviour can be predicted and variables can be isolated
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (1) observation + measurable
Rejected the vagueness of introspection (not concerned with observing internal mental processes as they can’t be scientifically observed), focuses on observable and measurable behaviour and tries to maintain control and objectivity within their research so relies on scientific lab experiments
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (2) general principles
Believes that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species so we can study animals to learn about human behaviour and they believe we’re all born a ‘blank slate’ so behaviour is all learner or determined by the environment
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (3) CC + OC
Human behaviour could be explained in terms of the basic form of learning called conditioning either classical (learning by association) or operant conditioning (learning by consequence)
Behaviourist approach evaluation - deterministic
Sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences (environmental) that have been conditioned, Skinner suggested everything we do is the sum total of our reinforced history which ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour, Skinner suggested that any sense of free will is simply an illusion and our past conditioning history determines the outcome but a strength of determinism is that the causes of human learning can be predicted and controlled
Behaviourist approach evaluation - reductionist (1) use of animals
Animals (including humans) are seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment through stimulus-response links with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour
Behaviourist approach evaluation - reductionist (2) lack of humanness
The approach ignores the importance of mental events during learning, other approaches such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have emphasised these processes which mediate between stimulus and response which suggests people may play a much more active role in their own learning (eg when giving a hug this could explain the action but not the meaning ie the emotions)
Why behaviourists don’t think it’s necessary to study internal mental events
We can’t observe them so they believe this meant we couldn’t study them in an observable way
Behaviourist approach evaluation - real life application (1)
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems eg for operant conditioning there’s the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric wards which work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges
Behaviourist approach evaluation - real life application (2) anxiety treatment
Eg classical conditioning has led to the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety associated with phobias, systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning and works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) associated with the feared object or situation (CS) and replacing it with relaxation
The problem with the behaviourist therapies/treatments
Outside of the structural environment the old behaviour can come back/the new behaviour could stop eg a token economy for young offenders works while they’re in the institution but as soon as they leave there’s no more reinforcement so they can stop the new behaviour eg stop being cooperative
Behaviourist approach evaluation - scientific credibility (1) develops psychology as science
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status
Behaviourist approach evaluation - scientific credibility (2) controlled
Eg Skinner uses controlled conditions to manipulate the consequence of behaviour (IV) and measure the effects on the rat’s behaviour (DV) which allowed him to establish a cause and effect relationship between the consequence of behaviour and how often the behaviour would happen
Social learning theory
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded
Imitation
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying that behaviour
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
Modelling
From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model, from the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour, this is a key factor in imitation
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (internal mental processes) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (1) observation of people
Albert Bandura (also a learning theorist) agreed with the behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learnt from experience, however this theory proposes that people can also learn through observation and imitation of others in social contexts
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (2) indirect learning
This theory believes that learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly (vicarious conditioning (i.e. retained from others)), Bandura believed unlike behaviourists that mediational processes that lie between stimulus and response are essential for learning to take place (S-O-R links i.e. stimulus-organism-response links)
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (3) only human study
These processes allow us to think about what we are going to do before we do it, for this reason they only study human learning rather than animal learning, these theorists believe in using scientific lab based experiments to study behaviour in an objective way
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (1) children + role models
People (especially children) watch other people and what they do, they are more likely to watch and imitate some people rather than others, we don’t imitate the behaviour of everyone that we observe and we are more likely to imitate the behaviour of ROLE MODELS
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (2) attachment + positive qualities
Identification is a form of attachment that is made to another person (the model) who has qualities that are seen as rewarding and we wish to acquire, modelling refers to the process of copying the behaviours of the chosen person/people, this model acts as an example and models the behaviour, in performing the behaviour at a later time the observer is said to be modelling their behaviour on that of the model they have observed
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (3) real-life vs virtual models
The types of people that we identify with and imitate are either live models eg parents, teachers and friends or symbolic models eg someone portrayed in the media eg a character on the TV
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (4) factors
A number of factors may influence whether a person is likely to be selected as a model and imitates such as: high status or powerful people, attractive people and people who are similar to us (in age, gender etc)
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (1) mental processes involved
The key difference of this theory from behaviourism is the idea that mental processes (mediating cognitive factors) are involved in learning, these processes lie between the stimulus and response and allow us to be able to think about what we are going to do before we do it
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (2) 4 factors
Bandura identified four mediational processes in learning: attention (in order to learn a behaviour we must first notice someone ie the model in their environment and pay attention to them and what they are doing), retention (the individual encodes and remembers what they have observed), motor reproduction (the observer must know they have the ability to perform the behaviour) and motivation (the individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed, imitation is more likely of the behaviour is reinforced, this can be directly or indirectly (vicarious)) - ARMM
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (3) timing
The first two of these (attention and retention) relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two (motor reproduction and motivation) to the performances of behaviour, unlike traditional behaviourism the learning and performance need not occur together, observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a LATER TIME
Social learning theory - vicarious reinforcement (1) learning from consequence of others
Learning from the consequences of someone else’s behaviour - this is the reinforcement that the observer sees the model receiving ie they do NOT receive the reward themselves directly but see someone else receive it, reinforcements such as rewards make behaviour more likely to happen again
Social learning theory - vicarious reinforcement (2) waiting for opportunity + repeat behaviour
With vicarious reinforcement the person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s behaviour, and when the opportunity to perform the learnt behaviour occurs the behaviour will be modelled, for example a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a certain behaviour is more likely to repeat that behaviour herself
Social learning theory - explain how learning through vicarious reinforcement challenges the behaviourist explanation of operant conditioning?
Vicarious reinforcement (indirect) is learning through the consequences of others whereas operant conditioning is learning through your own consequences (direct)
Research methods - how social learning theorists study human behaviour (1) scientific method
Social learning theory shares with behaviourism a commitment to the scientific method and has mostly employed the lab experiment to investigate observational learning
Research methods - how social learning theorists study human behaviour (2) focus on people
A distinguishing feature of the approach is that much of the research has been on people rather than animals such as rats and pigeons, also a lot of research focused on aggression in people, especially how children learn to be aggressive - this is because they conduct research in any context where learning occurs in humans, particularly favouring research using children (as they’re obviously influenced by others)
Bandura’s study - aim
Bandura et al (1961) conducted AN EXPERIMENT with young children to demonstrate observational or imitative learning
Bandura’s study - method
In group A children were put into a room one at a time with an adult who behaved in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll (a lifelike inflatable doll), the adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it, in group B one at a time children were put into a room where an adult behaved in a subdued non aggressive way toward the doll - each child was then put into a playroom which contained toys including a bobo doll and a hammer, the researchers recorded the number of aggressive behaviours each child made toward the doll
Bandura’s study - results
More aggressive acts were recorded for the children who had observed an adult behave aggressively than children who had not, boys were generally more aggressive than girls
Bandura’s study - conclusions
Exposure to a model behaving aggressively results in observational learning and aggressive behaviour
The most commonly used research methods used by social learning theorists are the
Lab experiments
Strengths of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (1) controlled
High control of variables eg using random allocation so it has high internal validity and cause and effect can be established which validates the findings and standardised procedures are easy to replicate eg toys were always the same and replication means findings can be verified (not just a one off) and it also means findings are more likely to be generalised
Strengths of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (2) objective data
Objective data as the number of aggressive acts could be measured and verified as everyone would find the same results (also it was filmed so could be checked)
Limitations of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (1) artificial
Highly artificial tasks/environment as there’s usually consequences to the aggression but there isn’t with the doll and the bobo doll itself is designed to be hit and there’a a possibility of demand characteristics due to the please you (researcher) effect as they’ve just watched a man act aggressively towards the doll that they’re now been given so they could copy that in order to please the researcher
Limitations of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (2) ethics
Problems with ethics as children can’t give informed consent and may not be protected from harm as long-term effects are unknown after their deliberate exposure to this aggression
Evaluation of social learning theory - deterministic
It’s described as being less deterministic than behaviourism (SOFT DETERMINISM) as it highlights the importance of cognitive mental processes in human learning, it suggests that a person stores a behaviour that they have seems and chooses when to perform it - allowing for a certain amount of freedom of choice in behaviour (don’t have complete free will as there’s still some determining factors but there’s some element of free will)
Evaluation of social learning theory - ignores the influence of biological factors
Bandura makes little reference to the role of biological factors on social learning, the results of the bobo doll experiment where boys were found to be more aggressive than girls for example may be explained through differences in testosterone - a hormone linked to aggression that’s found to be higher in boys (not completely holistic but can be described as reductionist but less so than behaviourist approach as it includes mediating cognitive factors)
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (1) new ideas
The principles of this theory have been used to increase our understanding of human behaviour eg gender behaviour where the gender appropriate behaviour is reinforced in children by same sex models (usually parents) and gender appropriate behaviours are then modelled by children
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (2) explain cultural differences
It also has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour, its principles can explain how children can learn from individuals around them and how and why cultural norms for example gender behaviour differs from one society to the next
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (3) more “human” than bio approach
The biological approach would have difficulty accounting for cultural differences in gender behaviour as it says differences are due to biological features (hormones and chromosomes) eg males have more testosterone so this means that everyone across the world would behave the same according to their gender (gender behaviour) but they don’t as there are cultural differences
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (1) credibility
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method, this like behaviourism gives psychology greater credibility and status as a science
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (2) controlled studies
Eg Bandura used children in controlled lab experiments to investigate learning, the strengths of his method are high control of variables so high internal validity, standardised procedures are easy to replicate and the data is objective
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (3) lab studies
However, problems with using lab studies are that it creates highly artificial tasks/environment, there’s a possibility of demand characteristics (please you effect) and problems with ethics
Similarities between social learning theory and behaviourism
Both have: real life applications, punishments reducing the likelihood of behaviour, environment focused (nurture), use highly controlled lab studies (scientific), deterministic and reductionist (ignore biological factors), learn through reinforcement and are learning theories (classical conditioning/operant conditioning)
Differences between social learning theory and behaviourism (1)
The social learning theory has: indirect (vicarious) reinforcement, uses humans, explains cultural differences, acknowledges that we have some free will so mental processes are important (soft determinism), observation and imitation, S-O-R links and you don’t have to perform a behaviour for learning to happen (it can be delayed)
Differences between social learning theory and behaviourism (2)
WHEREAS behaviourism has: direct reinforcement, uses animals eg rats and dogs, explains therapies and addictions, involves no free will so mental processes aren’t important (hard determinism), uses only classical conditioning and operant conditioning principles, S-R links and you must perform a behaviour for learning to occur
Both the social learning theory and behaviourism are examples of
Nurture
A practical application of the social learning theory is
Social skills training
Cognitive approach
The term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’ so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (ie thoughts) affect behaviour
Internal mental processes
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, they are developed from experience
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (1) dominance
Became one of the dominant approaches in the 1950’s and 1960’s with the development of computers, it’s a branch of psychology that deals with mental processes of the mind and is still a dominant approach in psychology today
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (2) internal mental processes
Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe it’s important to look at these internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour, as a result cognitive psychologists investigate cognitive processes of human behaviour such as memory, perception thinking, etc - that they believe lie between stimulus and response, cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations known as SCHEMA
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (3) not observable + inferences
These mental processes aren’t observable so cognitive psychologists must study them indirectly by making inferences about what’s going on inside people’s minds, they do this by modelling (a theory as to what is happening in our cognitive system) these processes and then testing and measuring them SCIENTIFICALLY (has S->IP->R links IP is information processing)
The study of internal mental processes (1) computer analogy
Cognitive psychologists compare the human mind to a computer (the computer analogy) arguing that there are similarities in the way that information is processed, like computers human beings are INFORMATION PROCESSORS and so it should be possible to identify the different forms and stages of processing which explain our behaviour
The study of internal mental processes (2) sequence of stages
The information processing model suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, transformation and output, many different kinds of mental processing contribute to information processing including selecting important information (ATTENTION), using it to solve problems (THINKING), storing it and retrieving it when needed (MEMORY)
Computer analogy
Input is the symbolic input via the keyboard or mouse, transformation is information that is recorded, stored and retrieved from memory and output is the symbolic output eg a print out
Real life version of the computer analogy (information processing stages)
The input is the input from the environment via our senses, the transformation is the information that is processes in the brain, stored and retrieved from memory and the output is the behavioural response
Informational processing - Rob is in a supermarket and sees an old lady struggling to reach the top shelf for a pack of biscuits, he offers to get them down for her and then reaches up for them
The input is him seeing the old lady struggling to reach the biscuits, the transformation is him deciding to offer to help and the output is him reaching for the biscuits
The study of internal mental processes (3) more of inference
The cognitive approach recognised that these mental processes cannot be studied directly but must be studied indirectly by inferring what is going on, this enables cognitive psychologists to develop theories about the mental processes and how they work
Theoretical models
One way to study internal mental processes is through the use of theoretical models such as the information processing model described above, these models are simplified representations of mental processes based on research evidence therefore supports a scientific approach to enquiry and testing, they are usually represented by boxes and arrows which show how information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages, one example is the multi store model of memory
The Multi-Store Model (MSM) of Memory (simplified) - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968); the model shows S->IP->R links and presents memory as a stage based sequence in the form of a flow chart, this is typical of how a cognitive psychologist uses models to explain cognitive processes
Input from the senses (register for all sensory information which lasts from 1/4 to 1/2 a second) —attention—> short term memory (STM range is 5-9 items on average which lasts for 18 to 30 seconds without rehearsal) —item is either forgotten or rehearsed so goes back into the STM until it becomes part of the LTM—> long term memory (unlimited capacity/duration - LTM then links items back into the STM via retrieval)
How the MSM works
Sensory information is inputted, without paying attention to it it’ll only last 1/4-1/2 of a second, if payed attention then it goes into the STM which can hold around 7 items and lasts 18-30 seconds without rehearsal and is then forgotten, with rehearsal it’ll eventually go into the LTM which has an unlimited capacity/duration which can be retrieved from back to the STM or can be forgotten - research on these models can then be carried out to confirm, refute or modify them by testing observable behaviour using experiments
Experiments that have been used to support the MSM:
Peterson and Peterson investigated the duration of STM (18-30 seconds) by giving them trigrams (three consonants) to learn and be tested at 3 second intervals eg CTP at 3s, 6s, 9s, etc, this was plotted on a forgetting curve showing how recall decreases as time increases (18 seconds = 10% recall)
Computer model (1) decision making
The cognitive approach also uses computer models where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting that there are similarities in the way information is processed, cognitive psychologists use the computer metaphor to stimulate human mental abilities in artificial intelligence to perform tasks that require decision making
Computer model (2)
One early example of computer stimulation is the General problem solver (GPS) that completes simple sequential puzzles eg the tower of Hanoi, artificial intelligence is concerned with producing machines that behave intelligently, expert systems are programmed with a body of knowledge and then used to deal with real world problems to replace the work of humans, an example is the Dendral programme which has been used to help chemists to establish the structure of complex molecules
The role of schemas (1) packages of info
Cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations (often referred to as ‘schema’), schemas are packages of ideas and information gathered through experience that often distort our interpretation of sensory material
The role of schemas (2) usefulness
Schemas are useful to us as they allow us to take short cuts when interpreting the huge amount of information we have to deal with on a daily basis, our cognitive processes have a limited capacity - as we get older our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated, adults have developed mental representations for everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what happens in a restaurant
The role of schemas (3) expectations
Schemas cause us to exclude anything that doesn’t fit into our ideas of the world and fill in the gaps in the absence of full information about a person, event or thing, many studies of perception research have demonstrated how participants’ interpretation of what they see and hear is affected by their EXPECTATIONS
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (1) combination
The aim of cognitive neuroscience is to look for a biological basis to thought processes, it combines cognitive psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience and has emerged as technology has advanced
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (2) brain scanning + detailed information
The rapid advances in brain scanning techniques such as PET scans and fMRI scans have helped psychologists to see which parts of the brain become active in specific circumstances, this means that neuroscientists are able to study the living brain giving them detailed information about the brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processing
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (3) example
For example, psychologists have found that when people feel guilty, several brain regions are active including areas of the prefrontal cortex which is associated with social emotions
Research methods - how the cognitive approach studies behaviour
Cognitive psychologists mainly use controlled laboratory experiments to investigate mental processes in humans
Strengths of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (1) - lab experiment (internal validity)
High control of variables so cause and effect can be established between the IV and DV so it has high internal validity and it uses standardised procedures which are easy to replicate meaning you can repeat them to see if the results are reliable
Strengths of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (2) - lab experiment (objective)
Objective data as the data is observed and measured so it’s not subjective
Limitations of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (1) - lab experiment (artificial)
Highly artificial tasks/environment so it’s not representative of real life as cognitive processes such as memory are tested in isolation (whereas in the real world they are not) so it lacks external validity of the findings
Limitations of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (2) - lab experiment (demand characteristics)
There’s the possibility of demand characteristics which would cause artificial behaviour and there’s problems with generalisation so studies lack mundane realism
Cognitive psychology - the case study approach
Case studies are a useful alternative to the laboratory experiment in cognitive psychology, they have provided important information on how brain damage can adversely affect the cognitive system, most notable in the field of memory (eg the case study of HM)
