approaches - liv edited copy Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
The scientific study of the mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour
2
Q
Science
A
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation, the aim is to discover general laws
3
Q
Introspection
A
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her mental emotion and emotional state as a result of the examination/observation of their conscious thoughts or feelings
4
Q
Wundt and introspection (1)
A
Around 1897 there was a man called Wilhelm Wundt who lived in Germany and decided to set up a psychology lab and from there modern psychology as we know was born
5
Q
Wundt and introspection (2) what methods did he use
A
He used methods such as introspection to try and uncover what people were thinking and experiencing, introspection is a psychological method which involves analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally, in the 1800’s there were no brain scans or computers to enable people to explore the inside workings of the brain
6
Q
Wundt and introspection (3) separation of psychology
A
He wanted to separate psychology from philosophy and focused on studying the mind in a much more structured and scientific way, the aim was to break conscious thoughts down into their basic elements - this was referred to as structuralism
7
Q
Wundt and introspection (4) what was his claim of observation
A
He claimed that mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed as they occurred using introspection, eg observers might be shown an object and asked to reflect upon how they were perceiving it and used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in perception
8
Q
What happened in Wundt’s studies:
A
Participants were presented with carefully controlled stimuli eg visual images and then would be asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing as they looked at the image, this made it possible to compare different participants’ reported in response to the same stimuli and establish general theories about mental processes and perception
9
Q
Problems with introspection (1) private experiences
A
Behaviourists criticised Wundt’s approach as it relied on ‘private’ experiences as processes such as perception and memory are considered subjective and difficult to measure and rely on self-support
10
Q
Problems with introspection (2) reliability
A
Wundt’s approach also failed due to the lack of reliability of his methods ie participants wouldn’t have exactly the same thoughts every time, this meant Wundt couldn’t establish general principles (which is extremely important to the scientific approach)
11
Q
Wundt set up the
A
First psychology lab
12
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science (1) 20th century; behaviourists;
A
By the beginning of the 20th Century the value of introspection and scientific status of introspection was being questioned by many (due to the reasons on other flashcard), behaviourists such as Watson and later Skinner believed that true scientific psychology should just study things that can be OBSERVED AND MEASURED instead of ‘private’ mental processes and began to focus on the scientific processes involved in learning
13
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science - the scientific method
A
Refers to the use of investigative methods that are: OBJECTIVE (recorded without bias and not influenced by any other factor or other people), REPLICABLE (should be able to be replicated exactly), CONTROLLED (should be under controlled conditions) and PREDICTABLE (the results should be used to predict future behaviour) (think CROP)
14
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science (2)
A
Many modern psychologists continue to rely on the scientific method to investigate human and animal behaviour
15
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science - cognitive psychologists
A
See the study of mental processes as a highly scientific area within psychology and although these mental processes are ‘private’ cognitive psychologists are able to make inferences on how these work through the use of lab experiments (emerged in the 1960s, still used today in research, likens us to computers as we have inputs then there’s activity in the brain and the outputs ie behaviour)
16
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science - the biological approach
A
Also have used the scientific method by using scanning techniques to investigate physiological processes in the brain
17
Q
Ways Wundt’s early investigations were scientific:
A
They were controlled and used standardised procedures
18
Q
Ways Wundt’s early investigations were unscientific:
A
They were subjective, unreliable and couldn’t establish general laws from them
19
Q
Classical conditioning
A
Learning by association ie learning that one thing leads to another (this produces a conditioned response from a conditioned stimuli)
20
Q
Why cayote ‘learn’ to be afraid of sheep
A
Sheep meat was laced with a drug causing immediate nausea so the cayotes learnt by association (classical conditioning) that sheep made them sick so they were afraid and stayed away from them
21
Q
How classical conditioning can be used to treat people with a phobia
A
Conditioning them to relax so that when they think of the phobia they think (and associate it) with the relaxing situation instead of the situation in which they’re afraid so that they’re no longer phobic as anxiety and relaxation are two emotions which can’t happen at the same time
22
Q
Behaviourist approach
A
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning without the need to consider thoughts and feelings
23
Q
Classical conditioning definition
A
Learning by association, occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus, the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by unlearned stimulus alone
24
Q
Operant conditioning
A
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequence, possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
25
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated, can be positive or negative
26
Punishment
The application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
27
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (1) observable + measurable behaviour
The behaviourist approach rejected the vagueness of introspection, the approach isn't concerned with observing internal mental processes but instead focuses on observable and measurable behaviour
28
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (2) control + objectivity + general principles
Behaviourists try and maintain control and objectivity within their research and do rely on the use of scientific, lab experiments to do this, they also believe that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species and so we can study animals to learn about human behaviour
29
Key assumptions/features of the behaviourist approach (3) blank slate + CC
They believe that we are all born a 'blank slate' and all behaviour is learned or determined by interactions and experiences in our environment, they believe that much of human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of learning called conditioning
30
According to the behaviourists, there are two key forms of learning or conditioning:
Classical conditioning (learning by association) and operant conditioning (learning by consequence)
31
Classical conditioning and Pavlov's research
Behaviourists regard all behaviour as a response to a stimulus and believe that we are born with only a handful of innate reflexes which are stimulus response units that do not need to be learned
32
A stimulus is
Any thing in the environment that an organism registers
33
A response is
Any behaviour that the organism carries out as a consequence of a stimulus
34
A reflex is
A consistent connection between a stimulus and a response eg the knee jerk reaction
35
Example of a stimulus and a response
Pepper (stimulus) causing sneezing (response)
36
Classical conditioning is learning by association, the key idea is that a
New association is made between a previous stimulus and reflex response - this reflex can be positive or negative eg if a student starting uni had fun at fresher's week and a song plays a lot she might associate that song with happy times but if she was homesick and heard the song she might associate it instead with sad times
37
Pavlov's research
Classical conditioning was developed by Russian psychologist Pavlov, he revealed that dogs could be conditioned to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food, gradually his dog learned to associate the sound of the bell (stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound, thus he was able to show how neutral stimuli (in this case the bell) can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association (HAD TO BE REPEATED TILL IT BECAME THE NEW LEARNING)
38
Classical conditioning: girl being bullied at school
Before learning, the reflex was the unconditioned stimulus bullying and the unconditioned response fear, during learning, the association was the neutral stimulus school and the bullying causing the fear leading to after learning, where the new learning (association) was the conditioned stimulus school and the conditioned response fear
39
Classical conditioning diagram
UCS --> UCR NS + UCS --> UCR CS --> CR
40
What do we know about different species? Are there any problems with generalising classical conditioning to all species?
Different species have different capabilities to learn through the process of classical conditioning, animals are prepared to learn associations that are significant in terms of survival but unprepared to learn ones that aren't
41
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - timing
He found that the association only occurs if the unconditional stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time, or around the same time as each other - if the time between presentations is too great then there will be no association made
42
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - stimulus generalisation
He discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus
43
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - stimulus discrimination
Characteristics of the conditioned stimulus become too different to be generalised
44
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - extinction
If the bell (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly sounded without the food, salivation (conditioned stimulus) slowly disappears - the behaviour is extinguished
45
Pavlov also found out several other points about the process - spontaneous recovery
The conditioned response can be extinguished and at a later time the dog will sometimes salivate to the sound of a bell
46
Operant conditioning - how behaviour is shaped and maintained
Learning by consequence (reinforcement and punishment)
47
Operant conditioning - what happens in a token economy (manages the behaviour of certain groups of people eg in education, shows the use of operant conditioning on humans)
Earning points for appropriate behaviour (eg doing something good) and losing points for inappropriate behaviour (eg doing something disruptive) which allows them to get rewards - reinforcement (the high the level in this system the better their rewards become)
48
Outline what is meant by operant conditioning
Learning through the consequence of behaviour, for example reinforcement or punishment, if the behaviour is followed by positive or negative reinforcement, then this increases the probability of the response being repeated, punishment means the behaviour is unlikely to be repeated
49
Operant conditioning - what the limitation of behaviour modification is
Problem behaviour returns outside a structures environment
50
Operant conditioning - types of reinforcement and Skinner's research
Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was used to explain how voluntary behaviours are earned, central to Skinner's theory is the concept of reinforcement, Skinner distinguished between positive reinforcement (receiving a reward) and negative reinforcement (escaping or avoiding something unpleasant ie preventing a threat from happening) and punishment (an unpleasant consequences of behaviour)
51
Positive and negative reinforcement...
Increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
52
Punishment...
Decreases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
53
Positive reinforcement
Receiving a reward eg if you do well on a test so you're given a treat, this principle operant conditioning makes behaviour more likely to be repeated (behaviour strengthens due to satisfaction)
54
Negative reinforcement
Escaping/avoiding something unpleasant eg coming home before your curfew to avoid being grounded, this principle of operant conditioning makes behaviour more likely to be repeated (strengthens a behaviour through avoidance learning)
55
Punishment
An unpleasant consequence of behaviour eg a child being grounded for being naughty, this principle of operant conditioning makes behaviour less likely to be repeated (behaviour weakens due to consequences)
56
Operant conditioning
Behaviour -> consequence (either reinforcement or punishment) -> likelihood of repetition
57
Skinner conducted most of his research on (1) outline of rat study
Animals such as rats or pigeons, he used a device known as a 'Skinner Box', he would introduce a hungry rat into the box and inside the box was a lever that when pressed would deliver a food pellet, the rat soon learned that pressing the lever would result in food (a reward), Skinner observed that as a consequence of its actions (receiving a pellet of food) the rat continued to display this new behaviour (the rat's behaviour had been positively reinforced)
58
Skinner conducted most of his research on (2) steps of rat study
Rat presses lever (maybe accidentally) -> rat rewarded by the pellet of food -> rat presses the lever again in order to obtain food -> food acts as a positive reinforcement and strengthens the lever pressing behaviour
59
Skinner conducted most of his research on (3) altering rat study
Skinner changed the mechanism so that when the rat presses the lever, instead of receiving a food pellet it was given an electric shock to its paw, very quickly the rat stopped pressing the lever so the electric shock acted as a punishment
60
Skinner conducted most of his research on (4) negative reinforcement + rats
Skinner also set up the box so that the floor was electrified and the lever switched off the current, once Skinner electrified the floor the rat started to bounce about and accidentally pressed the lever the electric current was turned off and the experiment was repeated, the rat learned to press the lever when the current was on, this is an example of negative reinforcement
61
How a video game addiction can be explained using the behaviourist principles of operant conditioning
When playing the game if you do well you move to the next level (reward) so you keep playing so that you can keep getting the reward of getting to the next level (due to the satisfaction) so this positive reinforcement strengthens the behaviour and makes it more likely to be repeated which makes them addicted
62
Skinner discovered that if an animal was rewarded every time it activated the level or pecked the disk (continuous reinforcement) then
The conditioned behaviour would quickly die out and become extinct, it was revealed that a variable ratio schedule would prolong the behaviour and was most resistant to extinction, here reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are produced eg every 10, 12, 15 etc times the level is pressed
63
Variable ratio
Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses, this schedule prolongs the behaviour and is the most resistant to extinction
64
When evaluating approaches, think...
DREAMS: D - determinism vs free will, R - reductionism vs holism, E - evidence, A - applications, M - research methods and S - scientific methods and similarities and differences
65
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (1)
Determinism vs free will - some approaches argue were influenced by forces outside of our control ie we have little or no free will eg the biological approach claims our behaviour is determined by our genes and that we have little control over our actions but other approaches eg humanism see people as having voluntary control of their actions
66
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (2)
Reductionism (how we explain behaviour but this lacks emotion) vs holism - some approaches 'break up' behaviour into smaller components, if the approach is reductionist it's an over simplification of complex human behaviours and processes eg the biological approach reduces complex behaviour down to chromosomes and hormones but ignores the influence of our upbringing and environment whereas other approaches eg humanism argue that human beings are best understood as a whole
67
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (3)
Evidence - any pieces of research that offer support for this approach and it's theory and saying which findings of these studies are strong and which have methods which could be improved, it's a strength of the approach if there's supporting research
68
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (4)
Applications - the usefulness of the approach, the extent to which the theories have practical applications in real life and how (if they have) have they helped to advance our understanding of human not, lead to effective treatments or generated further research, if the approach's theories have practical value and usefulness to human beings and society in general this is a strength
69
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (5)
Research methods - commenting on any aspect of the method used by researchers for the approach, this refers to the choice of experimental or non-experimental method (eg lab experiment, self report, case study, correlation study, etc) and the strengths and weaknesses of the methods used (eg issues such as ecological validity, control over extraneous variables, generalisability etc)
70
Evaluating approaches - DREAMS (6)
Scientific methods - discuss whether the methods used meet reliable criteria of science AND similarities and differences - include a discussion of how the approaches are similar and different to one another
71
Differences between classical and operant conditioning (1)
Classical is learning by association where the behaviour becomes the new learning theorised by Pavlov (Russian) who tested it on dogs, it's involuntary behaviour (reflexes) ie behaviour caused by a stimulus eg which could create a phobia or cure it such as by hospital relaxation (so can have positive or negative effects) WHEREAS
72
Differences between classical and operant conditioning (2)
WHEREAS operant is learning by consequence (reinforcement/punishment) where behaviour becomes more or less likely to be repeated which was theorised by Skinner (USA) who tested it on rats and pigeons, it's voluntary behaviour (your choice) ie behaviour caused by a consequence which could cause an addiction or a reward eg using a token economy system which modified behaviour (so also have positive and negative effects)
73
John Watson (how behaviourists study behaviour)
Revolutionised psychology and established radical behaviourism, he stated that consciousness couldn't be seen or meaningfully defined and therefore shouldn't be studied, he thought that instead psychologists should adopt the scientific method and STUDY ONLY THINGS THAT COULD BE DIRECTLY OBSERVED AND MEASURED ie behaviour and the environmental conditions that produce it
74
Controlled lab experiments often use animals as subjects eg (how behaviourists study behaviour)
Pavlov's investigation of the classical conditioning of dogs producing saliva and Skinner's investigation of the operant conditioning of reinforcement of rats pressing a lever (to get a food pellet)
75
Exam tip - in an exam you may be asked to describe the research methods used by the behaviourists and also evaluate them, you'll need to be able to
Apply what you've learnt in research methods about the experiment and case study to the behaviourist approach, behaviourists accept Darwin's theory of evolution that human beings have have evolved from lower animals (all shared a common ancestor) as a result behaviourists see the basic processes of learning as being the same for all species so as a consequence animals can replace humans as experimental subjects (behaviourists have studied rats, cats, pigeons and dogs to investigate the laws of learning)
76
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (1)
High control of variables which means that a cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV can be established eg in Skinner's study all variables were kept the same apart from the type or reinforcement/punishment
77
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (2) standardised + replication
Standardised procedures are easy to replicate so Skinner's experiments are strictly controlled which means that the findings can be replicated to check whether the findings are reliable
78
Strengths of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (3) direct observation
Objective data so all behaviourist experiments measure a behavioural response so are objective and can be directly observed, for example you can see if the rat has learnt by whether it presses the lever (response) to the pleasant stimuli of a food pellet
79
Limitations of the research methods - behaviourism is one of the most scientific methods used in psychology due to lab experiments (use of animals)
The main limitation of behaviourist experiments are issues with generalisation as most experiments are carried out on animals and it's questionable whether we can apply the findings to humans as humans are much more complex eg with higher mental abilities and the way humans think influences their behaviour whereas rats don't think in this same way
80
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach - deterministic
Hard determinism everything's determined by the environment (past experiences), this is a limitation as it means we lack free will but also strength as it allows us to predict behaviour and is scientific and controlled
81
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (1)
Deterministic - hard determinism, everything's determined by the environment (past experiences), this is a limitation as it means we lack free will but also a strength as it allows us to predict behaviour and is scientific and controlled
82
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (2)
Reductionism - reduces behaviour to stimulus, response and action but limited as doesn't consider the environment but a strength is that it's more scientific as it's broken down so can easily be tested
83
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (3)
Evidence - classical conditioning of dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell (Pavlov) and operant conditioning of rats to press a lever to receive a food pellet (Skinner)
84
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (4)
Applicability - classical conditioning is applied to therapy as they use systematic desensitisation eg to cure phobias by associating them with relaxation, operant conditioning is applied to behaviour shaping/modification eg circus elephants stood on their back legs or training dogs
85
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (5)
Method - lab study method which has a high degree of control (so this minimises extraneous variables do this gives the study high internal validity and means it can be replicated)
86
Behaviourist approach AO3 evaluation - DREAMS (6)
Scientific nature/similarities and differences - a highly scientific approach which is a strength but it uses animals which is a limitation as they think differently to humans (they're less complex), as it's a highly scientific approach it dehumanises ya and takes away free will so it's inappropriate to study humans in this way according to humanists as it loses sight of us as individuals (shouldn't be looking for trends/generalising us in this way) but cause and effect can be established as it's highly controlled which also means behaviour can be predicted and variables can be isolated
87
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (1) observation + measurable
Rejected the vagueness of introspection (not concerned with observing internal mental processes as they can't be scientifically observed), focuses on observable and measurable behaviour and tries to maintain control and objectivity within their research so relies on scientific lab experiments
88
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (2) general principles
Believes that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species so we can study animals to learn about human behaviour and they believe we're all born a 'blank slate' so behaviour is all learner or determined by the environment
89
Behaviourist approach AO1 key assumptions (3) CC + OC
Human behaviour could be explained in terms of the basic form of learning called conditioning either classical (learning by association) or operant conditioning (learning by consequence)
90
Behaviourist approach evaluation - deterministic
Sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences (environmental) that have been conditioned, Skinner suggested everything we do is the sum total of our reinforced history which ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour, Skinner suggested that any sense of free will is simply an illusion and our past conditioning history determines the outcome but a strength of determinism is that the causes of human learning can be predicted and controlled
91
Behaviourist approach evaluation - reductionist (1) use of animals
Animals (including humans) are seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment through stimulus-response links with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour
92
Behaviourist approach evaluation - reductionist (2) lack of humanness
The approach ignores the importance of mental events during learning, other approaches such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have emphasised these processes which mediate between stimulus and response which suggests people may play a much more active role in their own learning (eg when giving a hug this could explain the action but not the meaning ie the emotions)
93
Why behaviourists don't think it's necessary to study internal mental events
We can't observe them so they believe this meant we couldn't study them in an observable way
94
Behaviourist approach evaluation - real life application (1)
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems eg for operant conditioning there's the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric wards which work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges
95
Behaviourist approach evaluation - real life application (2) anxiety treatment
Eg classical conditioning has led to the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety associated with phobias, systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning and works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) associated with the feared object or situation (CS) and replacing it with relaxation
96
The problem with the behaviourist therapies/treatments
Outside of the structural environment the old behaviour can come back/the new behaviour could stop eg a token economy for young offenders works while they're in the institution but as soon as they leave there's no more reinforcement so they can stop the new behaviour eg stop being cooperative
97
Behaviourist approach evaluation - scientific credibility (1) develops psychology as science
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status
98
Behaviourist approach evaluation - scientific credibility (2) controlled
Eg Skinner uses controlled conditions to manipulate the consequence of behaviour (IV) and measure the effects on the rat's behaviour (DV) which allowed him to establish a cause and effect relationship between the consequence of behaviour and how often the behaviour would happen
99
Social learning theory
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded
100
Imitation
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying that behaviour
101
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
102
Modelling
From the observer's perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model, from the role model's perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
103
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour, this is a key factor in imitation
104
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (internal mental processes) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
105
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (1) observation of people
Albert Bandura (also a learning theorist) agreed with the behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learnt from experience, however this theory proposes that people can also learn through observation and imitation of others in social contexts
106
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (2) indirect learning
This theory believes that learning occurs directly, through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly (vicarious conditioning (i.e. retained from others)), Bandura believed unlike behaviourists that mediational processes that lie between stimulus and response are essential for learning to take place (S-O-R links i.e. stimulus-organism-response links)
107
Social learning theory - key assumptions/features of the approach (3) only human study
These processes allow us to think about what we are going to do before we do it, for this reason they only study human learning rather than animal learning, these theorists believe in using scientific lab based experiments to study behaviour in an objective way
108
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (1) children + role models
People (especially children) watch other people and what they do, they are more likely to watch and imitate some people rather than others, we don't imitate the behaviour of everyone that we observe and we are more likely to imitate the behaviour of ROLE MODELS
109
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (2) attachment + positive qualities
Identification is a form of attachment that is made to another person (the model) who has qualities that are seen as rewarding and we wish to acquire, modelling refers to the process of copying the behaviours of the chosen person/people, this model acts as an example and models the behaviour, in performing the behaviour at a later time the observer is said to be modelling their behaviour on that of the model they have observed
110
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (3) real-life vs virtual models
The types of people that we identify with and imitate are either live models eg parents, teachers and friends or symbolic models eg someone portrayed in the media eg a character on the TV
111
Social learning theory - identification and modelling (4) factors
A number of factors may influence whether a person is likely to be selected as a model and imitates such as: high status or powerful people, attractive people and people who are similar to us (in age, gender etc)
112
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (1) mental processes involved
The key difference of this theory from behaviourism is the idea that mental processes (mediating cognitive factors) are involved in learning, these processes lie between the stimulus and response and allow us to be able to think about what we are going to do before we do it
113
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (2) 4 factors
Bandura identified four mediational processes in learning: attention (in order to learn a behaviour we must first notice someone ie the model in their environment and pay attention to them and what they are doing), retention (the individual encodes and remembers what they have observed), motor reproduction (the observer must know they have the ability to perform the behaviour) and motivation (the individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed, imitation is more likely of the behaviour is reinforced, this can be directly or indirectly (vicarious)) - ARMM
114
Social learning theory - the role of mediational processes (3) timing
The first two of these (attention and retention) relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two (motor reproduction and motivation) to the performances of behaviour, unlike traditional behaviourism the learning and performance need not occur together, observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a LATER TIME
115
Social learning theory - vicarious reinforcement (1) learning from consequence of others
Learning from the consequences of someone else's behaviour - this is the reinforcement that the observer sees the model receiving ie they do NOT receive the reward themselves directly but see someone else receive it, reinforcements such as rewards make behaviour more likely to happen again
116
Social learning theory - vicarious reinforcement (2) waiting for opportunity + repeat behaviour
With vicarious reinforcement the person learns by observing the consequences of another person's behaviour, and when the opportunity to perform the learnt behaviour occurs the behaviour will be modelled, for example a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a certain behaviour is more likely to repeat that behaviour herself
117
Social learning theory - explain how learning through vicarious reinforcement challenges the behaviourist explanation of operant conditioning?
Vicarious reinforcement (indirect) is learning through the consequences of others whereas operant conditioning is learning through your own consequences (direct)
118
Research methods - how social learning theorists study human behaviour (1) scientific method
Social learning theory shares with behaviourism a commitment to the scientific method and has mostly employed the lab experiment to investigate observational learning
119
Research methods - how social learning theorists study human behaviour (2) focus on people
A distinguishing feature of the approach is that much of the research has been on people rather than animals such as rats and pigeons, also a lot of research focused on aggression in people, especially how children learn to be aggressive - this is because they conduct research in any context where learning occurs in humans, particularly favouring research using children (as they're obviously influenced by others)
120
Bandura's study - aim
Bandura et al (1961) conducted AN EXPERIMENT with young children to demonstrate observational or imitative learning
121
Bandura's study - method
In group A children were put into a room one at a time with an adult who behaved in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll (a lifelike inflatable doll), the adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it, in group B one at a time children were put into a room where an adult behaved in a subdued non aggressive way toward the doll - each child was then put into a playroom which contained toys including a bobo doll and a hammer, the researchers recorded the number of aggressive behaviours each child made toward the doll
122
Bandura's study - results
More aggressive acts were recorded for the children who had observed an adult behave aggressively than children who had not, boys were generally more aggressive than girls
123
Bandura's study - conclusions
Exposure to a model behaving aggressively results in observational learning and aggressive behaviour
124
The most commonly used research methods used by social learning theorists are the
Lab experiments
125
Strengths of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (1) controlled
High control of variables eg using random allocation so it has high internal validity and cause and effect can be established which validates the findings and standardised procedures are easy to replicate eg toys were always the same and replication means findings can be verified (not just a one off) and it also means findings are more likely to be generalised
126
Strengths of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (2) objective data
Objective data as the number of aggressive acts could be measured and verified as everyone would find the same results (also it was filmed so could be checked)
127
Limitations of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (1) artificial
Highly artificial tasks/environment as there's usually consequences to the aggression but there isn't with the doll and the bobo doll itself is designed to be hit and there'a a possibility of demand characteristics due to the please you (researcher) effect as they've just watched a man act aggressively towards the doll that they're now been given so they could copy that in order to please the researcher
128
Limitations of the Bandura study (social learning theory) (2) ethics
Problems with ethics as children can't give informed consent and may not be protected from harm as long-term effects are unknown after their deliberate exposure to this aggression
129
Evaluation of social learning theory - deterministic
It's described as being less deterministic than behaviourism (SOFT DETERMINISM) as it highlights the importance of cognitive mental processes in human learning, it suggests that a person stores a behaviour that they have seems and chooses when to perform it - allowing for a certain amount of freedom of choice in behaviour (don't have complete free will as there's still some determining factors but there's some element of free will)
130
Evaluation of social learning theory - ignores the influence of biological factors
Bandura makes little reference to the role of biological factors on social learning, the results of the bobo doll experiment where boys were found to be more aggressive than girls for example may be explained through differences in testosterone - a hormone linked to aggression that's found to be higher in boys (not completely holistic but can be described as reductionist but less so than behaviourist approach as it includes mediating cognitive factors)
131
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (1) new ideas
The principles of this theory have been used to increase our understanding of human behaviour eg gender behaviour where the gender appropriate behaviour is reinforced in children by same sex models (usually parents) and gender appropriate behaviours are then modelled by children
132
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (2) explain cultural differences
It also has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour, its principles can explain how children can learn from individuals around them and how and why cultural norms for example gender behaviour differs from one society to the next
133
Evaluation of social learning theory - real life application (3) more "human" than bio approach
The biological approach would have difficulty accounting for cultural differences in gender behaviour as it says differences are due to biological features (hormones and chromosomes) eg males have more testosterone so this means that everyone across the world would behave the same according to their gender (gender behaviour) but they don't as there are cultural differences
134
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (1) credibility
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method, this like behaviourism gives psychology greater credibility and status as a science
135
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (2) controlled studies
Eg Bandura used children in controlled lab experiments to investigate learning, the strengths of his method are high control of variables so high internal validity, standardised procedures are easy to replicate and the data is objective
136
Evaluation of social learning theory - scientific credibility (3) lab studies
However, problems with using lab studies are that it creates highly artificial tasks/environment, there's a possibility of demand characteristics (please you effect) and problems with ethics
137
Similarities between social learning theory and behaviourism
Both have: real life applications, punishments reducing the likelihood of behaviour, environment focused (nurture), use highly controlled lab studies (scientific), deterministic and reductionist (ignore biological factors), learn through reinforcement and are learning theories (classical conditioning/operant conditioning)
138
Differences between social learning theory and behaviourism (1)
The social learning theory has: indirect (vicarious) reinforcement, uses humans, explains cultural differences, acknowledges that we have some free will so mental processes are important (soft determinism), observation and imitation, S-O-R links and you don't have to perform a behaviour for learning to happen (it can be delayed)
139
Differences between social learning theory and behaviourism (2)
WHEREAS behaviourism has: direct reinforcement, uses animals eg rats and dogs, explains therapies and addictions, involves no free will so mental processes aren't important (hard determinism), uses only classical conditioning and operant conditioning principles, S-R links and you must perform a behaviour for learning to occur
140
Both the social learning theory and behaviourism are examples of
Nurture
141
A practical application of the social learning theory is
Social skills training
142
Cognitive approach
The term 'cognitive' has come to mean 'mental processes' so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (ie thoughts) affect behaviour
143
Internal mental processes
'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
144
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, they are developed from experience
145
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
146
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
147
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (1) dominance
Became one of the dominant approaches in the 1950's and 1960's with the development of computers, it's a branch of psychology that deals with mental processes of the mind and is still a dominant approach in psychology today
148
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (2) internal mental processes
Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe it's important to look at these internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour, as a result cognitive psychologists investigate cognitive processes of human behaviour such as memory, perception thinking, etc - that they believe lie between stimulus and response, cognitive processing can often be affected by a person's beliefs or expectations known as SCHEMA
149
Key assumptions/features of the cognitive approach (3) not observable + inferences
These mental processes aren't observable so cognitive psychologists must study them indirectly by making inferences about what's going on inside people's minds, they do this by modelling (a theory as to what is happening in our cognitive system) these processes and then testing and measuring them SCIENTIFICALLY (has S->IP->R links IP is information processing)
150
The study of internal mental processes (1) computer analogy
Cognitive psychologists compare the human mind to a computer (the computer analogy) arguing that there are similarities in the way that information is processed, like computers human beings are INFORMATION PROCESSORS and so it should be possible to identify the different forms and stages of processing which explain our behaviour
151
The study of internal mental processes (2) sequence of stages
The information processing model suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, transformation and output, many different kinds of mental processing contribute to information processing including selecting important information (ATTENTION), using it to solve problems (THINKING), storing it and retrieving it when needed (MEMORY)
152
Computer analogy
Input is the symbolic input via the keyboard or mouse, transformation is information that is recorded, stored and retrieved from memory and output is the symbolic output eg a print out
153
Real life version of the computer analogy (information processing stages)
The input is the input from the environment via our senses, the transformation is the information that is processes in the brain, stored and retrieved from memory and the output is the behavioural response
154
Informational processing - Rob is in a supermarket and sees an old lady struggling to reach the top shelf for a pack of biscuits, he offers to get them down for her and then reaches up for them
The input is him seeing the old lady struggling to reach the biscuits, the transformation is him deciding to offer to help and the output is him reaching for the biscuits
155
The study of internal mental processes (3) more of inference
The cognitive approach recognised that these mental processes cannot be studied directly but must be studied indirectly by inferring what is going on, this enables cognitive psychologists to develop theories about the mental processes and how they work
156
Theoretical models
One way to study internal mental processes is through the use of theoretical models such as the information processing model described above, these models are simplified representations of mental processes based on research evidence therefore supports a scientific approach to enquiry and testing, they are usually represented by boxes and arrows which show how information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages, one example is the multi store model of memory
157
The Multi-Store Model (MSM) of Memory (simplified) - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968); the model shows S->IP->R links and presents memory as a stage based sequence in the form of a flow chart, this is typical of how a cognitive psychologist uses models to explain cognitive processes
Input from the senses (register for all sensory information which lasts from 1/4 to 1/2 a second) —*attention*—> short term memory (STM range is 5-9 items on average which lasts for 18 to 30 seconds without rehearsal) —*item is either forgotten or rehearsed so goes back into the STM until it becomes part of the LTM*—> long term memory (unlimited capacity/duration - LTM then links items back into the STM via retrieval)
158
How the MSM works
Sensory information is inputted, without paying attention to it it'll only last 1/4-1/2 of a second, if payed attention then it goes into the STM which can hold around 7 items and lasts 18-30 seconds without rehearsal and is then forgotten, with rehearsal it'll eventually go into the LTM which has an unlimited capacity/duration which can be retrieved from back to the STM or can be forgotten - research on these models can then be carried out to confirm, refute or modify them by testing observable behaviour using experiments
159
Experiments that have been used to support the MSM:
Peterson and Peterson investigated the duration of STM (18-30 seconds) by giving them trigrams (three consonants) to learn and be tested at 3 second intervals eg CTP at 3s, 6s, 9s, etc, this was plotted on a forgetting curve showing how recall decreases as time increases (18 seconds = 10% recall)
160
Computer model (1) decision making
The cognitive approach also uses computer models where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting that there are similarities in the way information is processed, cognitive psychologists use the computer metaphor to stimulate human mental abilities in artificial intelligence to perform tasks that require decision making
161
Computer model (2)
One early example of computer stimulation is the General problem solver (GPS) that completes simple sequential puzzles eg the tower of Hanoi, artificial intelligence is concerned with producing machines that behave intelligently, expert systems are programmed with a body of knowledge and then used to deal with real world problems to replace the work of humans, an example is the Dendral programme which has been used to help chemists to establish the structure of complex molecules
162
The role of schemas (1) packages of info
Cognitive processing can often be affected by a person's beliefs or expectations (often referred to as 'schema'), schemas are packages of ideas and information gathered through experience that often distort our interpretation of sensory material
163
The role of schemas (2) usefulness
Schemas are useful to us as they allow us to take short cuts when interpreting the huge amount of information we have to deal with on a daily basis, our cognitive processes have a limited capacity - as we get older our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated, adults have developed mental representations for everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what happens in a restaurant
164
The role of schemas (3) expectations
Schemas cause us to exclude anything that doesn't fit into our ideas of the world and fill in the gaps in the absence of full information about a person, event or thing, many studies of perception research have demonstrated how participants' interpretation of what they see and hear is affected by their EXPECTATIONS
165
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (1) combination
The aim of cognitive neuroscience is to look for a biological basis to thought processes, it combines cognitive psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience and has emerged as technology has advanced
166
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (2) brain scanning + detailed information
The rapid advances in brain scanning techniques such as PET scans and fMRI scans have helped psychologists to see which parts of the brain become active in specific circumstances, this means that neuroscientists are able to study the living brain giving them detailed information about the brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processing
167
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience (3) example
For example, psychologists have found that when people feel guilty, several brain regions are active including areas of the prefrontal cortex which is associated with social emotions
168
Research methods - how the cognitive approach studies behaviour
Cognitive psychologists mainly use controlled laboratory experiments to investigate mental processes in humans
169
Strengths of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (1) - lab experiment (internal validity)
High control of variables so cause and effect can be established between the IV and DV so it has high internal validity and it uses standardised procedures which are easy to replicate meaning you can repeat them to see if the results are reliable
170
Strengths of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (2) - lab experiment (objective)
Objective data as the data is observed and measured so it's not subjective
171
Limitations of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (1) - lab experiment (artificial)
Highly artificial tasks/environment so it's not representative of real life as cognitive processes such as memory are tested in isolation (whereas in the real world they are not) so it lacks external validity of the findings
172
Limitations of the research methods used in the cognitive approach (2) - lab experiment (demand characteristics)
There's the possibility of demand characteristics which would cause artificial behaviour and there's problems with generalisation so studies lack mundane realism
173
Cognitive psychology - the case study approach
Case studies are a useful alternative to the laboratory experiment in cognitive psychology, they have provided important information on how brain damage can adversely affect the cognitive system, most notable in the field of memory (eg the case study of HM)
174
Strengths of the case study approach (cognitive psychology)
It gives us useful insight into unusual cases that may shed light on very unusual and atypical forms of behaviour, this may be preferred to the more superficial forms of data that might be collected from an experiment and there's a high degree of validity as the data collected is rich and detailed
175
Limitations of the case study approach (cognitive psychology)
It's based on very small samples so it's difficult to generalise from individual cases and has subjectivity as the information that makes it to the final report is based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher, also personal accounts from participants and family members may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay
176
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - soft determinism (1) acknowledges free will
The approach recognised that we can only operate on the limits of what we know eg language ability, but also acknowledges that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus, this is an interactionist/middle ground position that psychologists refer to as soft determinism which differs to the behaviourist approach
177
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - soft determinism (2) more on free will
This less extreme position is adopted by the behaviourist approach as many consider the hard determinism stance of behaviourism as extreme but the cognitive approach offers a compromise that thoughts are 'freely' chosen but only within the limits of our knowledge and experience (more face validity)
178
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - machine reductionism (1) role of human emotion
Although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor), the computer analogy has been criticised by many, such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information
179
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - machine reductionism (2) similarities + differences
Similarities between humans and computers: both process info, both have limited channel capacity (amount that can be stored) and both have a storage system (memory) // differences: humans have general knowledge due to past experiences from the physical world, humans have emotions eg frustration, humans make mistakes and learn from them, computers have no conscience or morals and computer memory is much bigger (humans forget)
180
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - real-life application (1) treatment
A strength of the approach is that is has been applied to many other area of psychology, for example the approach says that to understand symptoms of psychological disorders such as depression comes from faulty thinking processes that influence behaviour (so that is what we must study), this has also led to successful treatment of people suffering from depression using cognitive based therapies where faulty thinking is identified and altered
181
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - real-life application (2) field of EWT
Cognitive psychology also has practical applications in the field of EWT (eye witness testimonies), research has demonstrated the unreliability of eye witness accounts and how these are easily distorted, the cognitive interview, which was designed as a way of overcoming some of these issues, is based on research into how our cognitive process of memory works, the concepts of 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' have been based on research into retrieval failure
182
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - scientific credibility (1)
Cognitive psychologists' emphasis on scientific methods is a strength of this approach, the use of lab experiments in controlled settings has allowed reliable objective data to be obtained and allowed researchers to infer cognitive processes at work
183
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - scientific credibility (2) emerging neuroscience
The emergence of neuroscience has also enabled the biological and cognitive approach to come together which means the study of the mind has established more of a credible scientific basis since Wundt's early attempts to measure private mental processes
184
Evaluation of the cognitive approach - scientific credibility (3) artificial
However, the weaknesses of using scientific, lab experiments to investigate mental processes eg memory are: artificial tasks/environment as cognitive processes eg memory were tested in isolation, demand characteristics as people try harder to remember/purposely give wrong answers and problems with generalisation (lacks mundane realism) eg use memory differently in a cognitive study than how you would use it in real life
185
Unique features of the cognitive approach
Likens is to computers, explains psychological disorders and uses theoretical models
186
Unique features of the SLT approach
Uses vicarious (indirect) reinforcement and uses modelling and imitation
187
Unique features of the behaviourist approach
Ignores mental processes, behaviour depends on its consequences, uses animals and hard determinism ie no free will
188
Similarities between the cognitive and SLT approach
Free will, soft determinism, uses humans and regards mental processes as important
189
Similarities between the SLT and behaviourist approach
Uses reinforcement directly
190
Similarities between the behaviourist and cognitive approach
Both have real life applications to do with therapies
191
Similarities between the cognitive, SLT and behaviourist approach
All use lab experiments and they're all reductionist approaches
192
Psychodynamic approach definition
A perspective that describe the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
193
The unconscious definition
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
194
Id definition
Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
195
Ego definition
The 'reality check' that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego
196
Superego definition
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be
197
Defence mechanism definition
Unconscious strategies that the ego used to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
198
Psychosexual stages definition
Five developmental stages that all children pass through, at each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
199
Key assumptions/features of the psychodynamic approach (1) the mind
Sigmund Freud believed that behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than biological factors or environmental reinforcement, he assumed that people are born with BASIC INSTINCTS, DRIVES AND NEEDS that motivate our behaviour and that behaviour is largely controlled by the UNCONSCIOUS mind
200
Key assumptions/features of the psychodynamic approach (2) case study method
Freud suggested that the case study method allows the individual to be studied in detail, and what is said and done can be interpreted by the analyst for the underlying unconscious motives
201
Key assumptions/features of the psychodynamic approach (3) childhood experiences
Freud believed that EARLY CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES DETERMINE ADULT BEHAVIOUR and personality and the unconscious mind is made up of repressed childhood experiences and conflicts, he also believed that our personality is DYNAMIC AND TRIPARTITE in nature - it is made up of three different elements id, ego and superego (3 part structure of personality)
202
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness (1) hidden mental processes
Freud stated that whenever we make a choice or decision in our lives, hidden mental processes, of which we are unaware and have no control of, determine these choices or decisions
203
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness (2) unconscious actions
Freud suggested that free will is therefore a delusion (so it's a psychic deterministic approach), we are not entirely aware of what we are thinking and we often act in ways that have little to do with our conscious thoughts, therefore he assumed that a large part of our mental life operates at an UNCONSCIOUS LEVEL
204
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness (3) name them
The mind comprises 3 levels: unconscious, conscious and pre conscious, the majority of the mind is unconscious and has an important role in all our behaviour
205
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness; the ICEBERG ANALOGY is often used to explain Freud's theory of human consciousness (1) conscious
Conscious - at the surface lies the conscious mind, here we are directly aware of our thoughts and experiences
206
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness; the ICEBERG ANALOGY is often used to explain Freud's theory of human consciousness (2) preconscious
Preconscious - here lie our thoughts, feelings and experiences that we are not directly aware of but can be easily accessed, it represents most of what you would refer to as stores in LTM, memories of our experiences are stored in our preconscious and can be retrieved through both recall and recognition
207
The structure of the mind - the 3 levels of consciousness; the ICEBERG ANALOGY is often used to explain Freud's theory of human consciousness (3) unconscious
Unconscious - this contains instincts, drives and desires that we are not aware of but which have a strong influence on our behaviour, many of these would be disturbing to the individual if they were to become conscious, these thoughts are completely inaccessible without the use of specialist techniques from a psychoanalyst
208
Freudian slips
An unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings (ie evidence for the unconscious part of the mind) eg say a dress is "fattening" instead of "flattening" reflects the deep-seated true feelings eg of hatred or jealousy causing you to say an unpleasant thing (Freud said there are no accidents, all behaviour is symbolic and has meaning)
209
Structure of the personality - describe as...
Tripartite (made you of three parts) and dynamic
210
Structure of the personality (tripartite and dynamic) - Freud believes that the personality is made up of three components; the Id (1)
The Id is the PLEASURE principle, it compromises the innate world of the child (born with these drives) including instinctual drives of sex and aggression
211
Structure of the personality (tripartite and dynamic) - Freud believes that the personality is made up of three components; the Id (2) pleasure principle
It works on the pleasure principle and demands instant satisfaction, it responds directly to instincts or demands rising from within the body
212
Structure of the personality (tripartite and dynamic) - Freud believes that the personality is made up of three components
The Id (the pleasure principle), the Ego (the reality principle) and the Superego (the morality principle)
213
Structure of the personality (tripartite and dynamic) - Freud believes that the personality is made up of three components; the Superego
Moral aspect of personality (determines good and bad behaviour) representing the internalised moral standards of parents and society (this develops at approximately age 5) - determines what's right and wrong
214
Structure of the personality (tripartite and dynamic) - Freud believes that the personality is made up of three components; the Ego
The executive of personality but tries to satisfy the basic desires of the Id by using techniques based on reality such as talking, planning and delaying so the Ego operates in the reality principle, it develops at age 2
215
What sort of personality would someone have if they had a weak superego?
A psychotic, selfish personality
216
What sort of personality would someone have if they had a strong superego?
A neurotic, anxious personality
217
Defence mechanisms (AKA ego defence mechanisms) (1) general view + repression
A number of different defence mechanisms are used by the ego to prevent a painful, upsetting or disturbing unconscious thoughts and conflicts becoming conscious or entering into awareness, the most important and constantly used defence mechanism is repression
218
Defence mechanisms (AKA ego defence mechanisms) (2) strong ego vs strong id/superego
A person with a strong ego will be able to compete with the demands of the id and superego and will be able to use defence mechanisms effectively, a person with an over strong id and/or superego won't be able to function very well or adjust to the demands of everyday life and may exhibit psychological disorders
219
The defence mechanisms are
Repression, projection, displacement, regression and denial (projection and regression aren't on the spec)
220
Defence mechanism - repression
Pushes impulses and thoughts unacceptable/threatening to the ego into the unconscious eg being unaware that you have passed through the Oedipus or Electra complex
221
Defence mechanism - projection
Attributing your own unwanted characteristics onto someone else eg accusing someone of bad intentions as "I copied someone's homework" becomes "he copied my homework"
222
Defence mechanism - displacement
Choosing a substitute object for the expression of your feelings because you cannot express your feelings openly eg punching a wall when someone ie your parent has made you extremely angry
223
Defence mechanism - regression
Reverting to early forms of childhood behaviour eg taking yourself to bed when things get tough - curling up into a foetal ball
224
Defence mechanism - denial
Refusing to acknowledge certain aspects of reality as to do so would cause distress eg a woman not wanting to acknowledge that her husband is having an affair
225
Psychosexual stages
Freud said early childhood experiences determine the adult personality, normal development to the child is to pass through one stage and onto the next one, but some get stuck or FIXATED at a particular stage and this has consequences for adult personality development and behaviour - remember the stages as OAP Loves Guinness (oral anal phallic latency genital)
226
Unconscious mind can't be studied scientifically
As you have to make inferences about it as you're unaware of it which can lead to subjectivity, false perceptions and participants lying (social desirability)
227
Psychosexual stages - stage 1
Oral, 0-1 years old, pleasure centre is the mouth, the possible cause of fixation is early weaning (changing from milk to solids) or deprivation of love or food and the possible results of fixation is smoking, biting nails and sarcasm
228
Psychosexual stages - stage 2
Anal, 2-3 years old, pleasure centre is the anus, possible cause of fixation is lax toilet training or harsh toilet training and possible results of fixation is tiredness, meanness and obsessiveness
229
Psychosexual stages - stage 3
Phallic, 4-5 years old, pleasure centre is the genital area, possible cause of fixation is no father figure or very dominant mother and possible results of fixation are envy, self- obsession and sexual anxiety (may result in homosexuality or looking for a mother figure always in adulthood) - gender identity thought the resolution of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes
230
Psychosexual stages - stage 4
Latency, 6-12 years old, a period of relative calm in which ego defence mechanisms are developed, fixation doesn't normally occur at this stage
231
Psychosexual stages - stage 5
Genital, 13-18 years old, pleasure centre is the genitals, associated with mature sexual relationships, sexual desire becomes conscious with the onset of puberty
232
Oedipus Complex (Freud)
A boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father but fears his father will find out about his desires and castrate him (castration anxiety) so to reduce this fear he identifies with his father and internalise his superego
233
Electra Complex (Freud)
A girl desires her father, views her mother as a rival and is jealous of her and resolves her conflict by identifying with her mother to reduce the anxiety of not having a penis or having the father she internalises her mother's superego and substitutes her previous desires for a baby (preferably a boy as it's a symbol of power)
234
The psychosexual stages theory is
A (childhood) development theory to show the importance of childhood, it shows the stages that sexual energy is focused on and that you can't pass to the next stage of you become fixated at an earlier stage which can cause consequences in adulthood
235
All three parts of the personality structure are
In constant conflict with each other
236
How psychoanalysts study behaviour - psychodynamic psychologists study human behaviour by
Using the case-study method to get qualitative data over a long period of time (longitudinal), usually using individuals suffering from psychological trauma, this requires them to gather large amounts of qualitative data about people eg the case of Little Hans
237
Case study: Freud (1909) - Little Hans
Feared horses would bite him, Freud explained his phobia as resulting from the Oedipus implies and the ego's use of the defence mechanism of displacement and that he had displaced his fear that his father would castrate him for having sexual thoughts about his mother (this unconscious fear had been displaced onto another object and he feared horses biting him)
238
How Freud explained Hans' phobia of horses
He displaced the fear of his father castrating him onto horses causing him to fear that horses would bite him (symbolic of castration anxiety)
239
How Hans' mum explained Hans' phobia of horses
She said he once saw a horse that was pulling a cart fall and "make a terrible noise" so he's been classically condition as he now associated horses with fear due to the loud noise he heard
240
Evaluation of Freud's case studies (1) insight + not generalisable
As case studies are a study of one person or one group of people they provide a valuable insight but the findings must be treated with caution as they lack generalisability and the focus of Freud's case studies has been on people suffering from a variety of mental disorders rather than on normal, well-adjusted people
241
Evaluation of Freud's case studies (2) going native
The researcher can become too involved in the case study and lose objectivity (going native) - Freud has been accused of misinterpreting the details of Han's life to fit his theory of the Oedipus complex and for ignoring conflicting information
242
Strengths of Freud's case study method
Useful insight into unusual cases that may shed light on very unusual and atypical forms of behaviour which may be preferred to the more superficial forms of data that might be collected from an experiment or observation and there's a high degree of validity as the data collected is rich and detailed
243
Limitations of Freud's case study method
Based on very small samples so it's difficult to generalise from individual cases and subjectivity as the information that makes it to the final report is based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher also personal accounts from participants and family members may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay
244
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - reductionist
It's a reductionist approach as behaviour is broken down into unconscious actions/processes but it's less reductionist than behaviourism
245
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - deterministic (1) no such things as accidents
PSYCHIC DETERMINISTIC (hard deterministic approach), Freud believed (in relation to human behaviour) that there was no such thing an "accident" even something as apparently random as a "slip of the tongue" is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning
246
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - deterministic (2) lack of free will
This approach explains all behaviour, even accidents, as determined by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood such that and free will we may think we have is a DELUSION (unaware our unconscious mind determines our conscious mind)
247
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - deterministic (3) hard vs soft
This approach differs to the SLT and the cognitive approach as they're soft deterministic approaches whereas the psychodynamic approach and the behaviourist approach are hard deterministic approaches however behaviourism says our behaviour is based on past experiences whereas this approach says it's based on our unconscious mind
248
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - practical application (1) psychoanalysis
Alongside the theoretical bases of this approach, Freud also brought to the world a new form of theory: PSYCHOANALYSIS, employing a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious such as hypnosis and dream analysis, psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day psychotherapies that have since been established
249
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - deterministic (2) ethics of psychoanalysis
Although Freudian therapies have claimed success with many patients suffering from mild neuroses, psychoanalysis has been criticised as inappropriate, even harmful, for people suffering more serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia
250
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - deterministic (3) helpfulness
Psychoanalysis such as hypnosis might not be effective with serious mental disorders as it can create more anxieties especially for people with schizophrenia who don't always know the distinction between fantasy and reality
251
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - the case study method (1) single individuals
Freud's theory was based on the intensive study of single individuals who were often in therapy, although Freud's observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics have suggested that it is not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a SMALL NUMBER of individuals who were psychologically abnormal
252
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - the case study method (2) subjective
Also, Freud's interpretations were HIGHLY SUBJECTIVE, it is unlikely eg in the case of Little Hans for instance that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions and in comparison with the other approaches Freud's methods lack scientific rigour
253
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - untestable concepts (1) falsification
The philosopher of science KARL POPPER argued that this approach doesn't meet the scientific criterion of falsification (not open to empirical testing and the possibility of being disproved) as many of Freud's concepts eg the id and the Oedipus complex are said to occur at an unconscious level making them difficult if not impossible to test, according to Popper this affords the theory the status of PSEUDOSCIENCE ('fake' science) rather than real science
254
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - untestable concepts (2) research evidence
However, recent research has begun to provide evidence for the unconscious mind - Tallis 2002 reported that neuroscientists are very supportive of the idea of unconscious processing at the sub cortical level, processing of subliminal information has been reported in scanning techniques which may suggest that there is scientific credibility to some of Freud's concepts
255
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - explanatory power (1) (ie many areas of application) impact
Although Freud's theory is controversial and bizarre, it has had a huge impact on psychology, alongside behaviourism this approach remained the dominant approach in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a whole range of phenomena including personality development, gender development (psychosexual stages, etc)/behaviour and abnormal behaviour
256
Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach - explanatory power (2) (ie many areas of application) acknowledges childhood experience
The approach is also credited for making the connection between childhood experiences and later development such as the effects of early attachment patterns on adult and adolescent behaviour (in the attachment topic at AS *don't write this bracket in exam*)
257
Applications of the psychodynamic approach
Psychoanalysis which started talking therapies being used so is a strength of the approach, gender identity and moral development application
258
Scientific evaluation of the psychodynamic approach
Unscientific as unfalsifiable, has unobservable concepts and has subjective interpretation
259
Define humanistic approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person's capacity for self-determination
260
Define free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
261
Define self-actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential - becoming what you are capable of
262
Define hierarchy of needs
A five-levelled hierarchy in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as self-esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved
263
Define self
The ideas and values that characterise 'I' and 'me' and includes perception and valuing of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'
264
Define congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and ideal-self are seen to broadly match
265
Define conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children, for instance, a parent saying to a child 'I will only love you if...you study medicine'
266
Key assumptions/features of the humanistic approach (1) "third force"
Humanistic psychology emerged in the US in the 1950s largely as a result of the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, it became known as the 'third force' in psychology - alongside the behaviourist and psychodynamic approaches - and represented a challenge to both
267
Key assumptions/features of the humanistic approach (2) not "pathologising"
Rogers felt that Freud had dealt with the 'sick half' of psychology, so the humanistic approach concerned itself with explanations of 'healthy' growth in individuals, looks at subjective experience and self determination- looks at the individual
268
Key assumptions/features of the humanistic approach (3) focus on individuals
Humanist psychologists start from the assumption that every person had their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world and believe that an individual's behaviour is connected to their inner feelings and self-image, the focus is on INDIVIDUAL'S SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCES rather than objective reality, it looks at the person as a whole rather than trying to reduce thought and behaviour to smaller elements (holism)
269
Key assumptions/features of the humanistic approach (4) free will
It suggests that each person has FREE WILL and is responsible for their own happiness and well-being as humans, we have the innate (ie inborn) capacity for SELF-ACTUALISATION and personal growth is seen as essential for psychological well-being
270
Free will (1) opposes determinism
Opposite of determinism, all the approaches so far have been deterministic to some degree and states there's some things we can't control whereas humanistic psychology is different in that it claims that human beings are self-determining and have free will
271
Free will (2) active agents
This doesn't mean that we are not affected by internal and external influences, but we are ACTIVE AGENTS who have the ability to determine our own development
272
Free will (3) reject scientific models
For these reasons, Rogers and Maslow (humanistic psychologists) REJECT scientific models that attempt to establish general laws or principles of human behaviour, as active agents we are all unique and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws, this is often referred to as the person-centred approach in psychology
273
Self-actualisation (1) personal growth
The desire to reach your full potential, humanists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human, personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated, not everyone will manage this though, as some people may face psychological barriers that prevent them from reaching their potential, it may be this that then leads them to psychological disorders such as depression
274
Self-actualisation (2) innate
Humanists believe that every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential and be the best they possibly can be (innate need for personal growth) - this is knows as self-actualisation, both Rogers and Maslow believed that self-actualisation may be achieved in different ways by different people
275
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1) "wanting"
He was interested in human motivation and proposed a stage of theory of the route towards self-actualisation called the hierarchy of needs, he described the human condition as one of 'wanting' - meaning we are always seeking and desiring something
276
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (2) state them
He categorised these wants into a hierarchy of needs and self-actualisation needs, the four deficiency needs (physiological, safety, belonging and love and self-esteem needs) must be met before the individual can attempt to satisfy their self-actualisation needs
277
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (3) nature of levels
The most basic, physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs at the top, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need, PERSONAL GROWTH is promoted when the individual meets the deficiency needs and the pinnacle is self-actualisation
278
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (4) describe them
First physiological needs eg food, water or sex, then safety needs eg security if body, employments or resources, then love/belonging eg family, friendship or sexual intimacy, then esteem eg self esteem, confidence or respect then self-actualisation eg morality, acceptance of facts and spontaneity (allowing personal growth)
279
The self, congruence and conditions of worth (1)
Rogers states that people who are able to self-actualise are fully functioning persons, they are in touch with the here and now and are continually growing and changing
280
The self, congruence and conditions of worth (2) congruence
Rogers believed that people could only fulfil their potential for growth (self actualisation) of an individual's concept of self (the way they see themselves) has CONGRUENCE with their ideal self (the person they want to be), congruence is defined as when the self-concept and ideal-self are seen to broadly match (think of it like an overlapping Venn diagram)
281
The self, congruence and conditions of worth (3) self vs ideal self
If too big a gap exists between the two selves the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible, the closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other the greater the congruence and the higher our feelings of self worth, it is RARE for a complete state of congruence to exist, with most people experiencing some degree of incongruence (the more overlap between the two selves the more likely we are to realise our full potential)
282
Conditions of worth (1) incongruity + unconditional positive regard
Incongruity between the self image and ideal self is created by confidence of worth, Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults such as low self-esteem stems from childhood and can be explained by a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD or lack of unconditional love from our parents or significant others in our life
283
Conditions of worth (2)
When people experience conditional positive regard they develop CONDITIONS OF WORTH which is where the significant others in their life put conditions upon them which then they believe need to be in place if they are to be accepted by others and see themselves positively
284
Conditions of worth (3) meeting expectations
An individual may only experience a sense of self-acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance eg a child only receiving love and praise from its parents if it behaves in ways the parents consider to be socially acceptable
285
The influence on counselling psychology (1) Rogerian
One of the few applications of the approach, Rogers believed that many issues we have as adults such as low self-esteem come from childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard or lack of unconditional love from our parents
286
The influence on counselling psychology (2) bridge gap between self and idea self
The aim of humanistic therapy is to help people to lessen the difference between their self-concept and their ideal self, and being about a state of congruence, the more congruent a person is the more psychologically healthy and fully functioning a person is (think large Venn diagram overlap between the two selves)
287
The influence on counselling psychology (3) CCT
Based on these ideas, Rogers developed person-centred or client centred therapy, this is a NON-DIRECTIVE therapy where people are perceived as having the power and motivation to help themselves and so fine their own solutions to their problems and are not told what to do by the therapist
288
The influence on counselling psychology (4) therapist is facilitator
The therapist is just a facilitator, creating an environment for growth by being supportive, trying to dissolve the client's conditions of worth and provide them with unconditional positive regard, this is done by: empathy with the client's emotions, genuineness and unconditional positive regard eg no "conditions of worth"
289
The influence on counselling psychology (5) transformed psychotherapy
Rogers' work transformed psychotherapy and introduced a variety of counselling techniques in the US and the UK similar counselling skills are practised, it has been praised as a forward looking and effective approach as it focuses on the present problems rather than dwelling on the past (strength), it's best however applied to the treatment of mild psychological conditions such as anxiety and low self-worth
290
The influence on counselling psychology (6) not suitable for all
Just like the psychodynamic approach, Rogers' therapy would be less effective in treating more serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia as it's difficult for schizophrenic people to help themselves and find their own solutions when their perception of reality isn't always correct/distorted
291
Research methods - how humanists study behaviour (1) subjective study
Humanists favour research methods that will allow them to understand other people's subjectivity, consequently they avoid methods that study people objectively, including experimentation and non-participant observation
292
Research methods - how humanists study behaviour (2) qualitative
They generally think that reducing people's (subjective) experience robs it of its richness and meaning so they also avoid quantitative approaches (they want to focus on the individual not the group or target population to make general laws as it's a person-centred approach)
293
Research methods - how humanists study behaviour (3) name preferred methods
Therefore, qualitative methods are preferred, particularly case studies and unstructured interviews as they allow access to other people's views and experiences without imposing on them the researcher's ideas about what is important
294
Strengths of case studies (case studies involve and in-depth study of one individual)
High degree of validity - go into depth and give an insight into real life experiences and rich and detailed data produced - case studies provide lots of qualitative data which cannot be gained in an experiment
295
Limitations of case studies (case studies involve and in-depth study of one individual)
Based on very small samples (usually individuals) - which makes it difficult to generalise findings and possibility of researcher bias - the researcher can become too involved in the case study and lose their objectivity and may misinterpret or influence the outcomes
296
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; D
Self-determining, humans have free will, we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development, person-centres approach (can be seen as both a strength and weakness of the approach)
297
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; R
Holistic not reductionist, suggests a subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person, strength of the approach as gives it more validity than other approaches
298
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; E
Humanism is based on a set of abstract concepts which are untestable so lacks supporting evidence which is a weakness of the approach however some aspects can be evidence from everyday life eg a child only receiving love and praise from its parents if it behaves in ways the parents consider to be socially acceptable
299
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; A
Limited real world application so a weakness of the approach, Rogerian therapy led to counselling techniques and as humanism is based on a set of abstract concepts (which are untestable) it lacks supporting evidence
300
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; M
Qualitative methods eg case studies and unstructured interviews so eg high in validity but can't generalise findings
301
Humanism evaluation - DREAMS; S
Has therapy applications similar to other approaches eg psychodynamic but it focuses on the individual and not on a group or target population as it doesn't establish general laws (subjective rather than objective) it's unscientific (also like the psychodynamic approach) as it's subjective and has untestable concepts
302
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - not reductionist (1) very holistic
Humanists REJECT any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components, humanists therefore take a holistic position which suggests that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the WHOLE person
303
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - not reductionist (2) considers human context
A strength is that this may give the approach more VALIDITY than other approaches as it considers meaningful human behaviour within real-life concepts (this differs eg from the behaviourism and psychodynamic approaches which are reductionist although behaviourism is more reductionist than the psychodynamic approach)
304
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - limited practical application (1) small impact on psychology as a whole
Weakness, unlike some of the other approaches, humanism has limited real world application, although Rogerian therapy (PCT/CCT) has led to the development of counselling techniques, the approach has limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole
305
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - limited practical application (2) lacks evidence
This may be due to humanistic psychology being described as a set of abstract concepts rather than a comprehensive theory, this has meant that humanism lacks evidence to support its ideas, which is a weakness of the approach
306
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - untestable concepts (1)
Weakness, humanism does include a number of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test, concepts such as 'self-actualisation' and 'congruence' cannot be assessed under experimental conditions
307
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - untestable concepts (2) its basis is non-scientific + Q method
Rogers did try and make his work more scientific by developing the Q-sort - which was an objective measure of progress in therapy, however the humanistic approach which describes itself as anti-scientific does lack empirical evidence to support its ideas which is a weakness for psychology and its scientific credibility (therefore lacks scientific credibility)
308
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - positive approach (1)
Strength, humanists have been praised for 'bringing the person back into psychology' and promoting a positive image of the human condition as it sees all people as basically good, who are free and in control to work towards the achievement of their potential
309
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - positive approach (2)
Humanism in comparison to Freud and his psychodynamic approach offers and optimistic alternative to the view that we are all slaves to our past and that we all exist somewhere between 'common unhappiness and absolute despair'
310
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - positive approach (3) overly idealised
However, some criticise the approach as it represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature, critics argue that not all people are as inherently good and growth-orientated as people humanistic theorists suggest
311
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - cultural bias (1) individualistic
Weakness, many of the ideas that are central to the humanistic psychology such as personal growth would be much more readily associated with individualistic cultures in the Western world such as the US
312
Evaluation of the humanistic approach - cultural bias (2) group needs
Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group and community may not identify so easily with the ideas and values of humanism, therefore a weakness may be that the approach is a product of the cultural context within which is was developed
313
Psychodynamic approach...is it reductionist?
Don't call it reductionist, just say that it OVEREMPHASISES the role of the unconscious
314
PCT and CCT stand for
Person centred therapy and client centred therapy (therapy application from the humanistic approach)
315
Define the biological approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
316
Define genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence), genes are transmitted from parent to offspring ie inherited
317
Define biological structure
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
318
Define neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
319
Define genotype
The particular set of genes that a person possesses
320
Define phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
321
Define evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
322
Key assumptions/features of the biological approach (1) scientific techniques
In recent years, with the development of more sophisticated scientific techniques and lab procedures, the biological approach has become increasingly important in our understanding of psychological processes and human behaviour
323
Key assumptions/features of the biological approach (2) behaviour based on biology
Psychologists from the biological approach assume that behaviour and experiences are caused by activity in the nervous system of the body and biological structures
324
Key assumptions/features of the biological approach (3) neurochemistry
The things people think, feel, say and do are caused by electrochemical events occurring within and between the neurons that make up the nervous system, particularly those in the brain (neurochemistry)
325
Key assumptions/features of the biological approach (4) evolutionary
Many biopsychologists also agree that behaviour may be influenced by genetic factors, furthermore because the genes we inherit are the result of evolution, many biopsychologists think that behavioural and psychological characteristics have evolutionary explanations
326
The influence of genes (1)
Within most cells in the human body, is a structure called the nucleus, the nucleus of every cell (apart from sex cells) contains 46 structures called chromosomes, chromosomes are made up of a complex chemical called DNA, the DNA on each chromosome carrier the units of information called genes, our genes interact with the environment to influence every aspect of our bodily structure and function
327
The influence of genes (2) on behaviour
The question for psychologists is to determine what influence genes have on behaviour (they believe behaviours are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics eg eye colour)
328
Genotype and phenotype (these show how genetics can influence the development of an individual) (1)
Genotype refers to a person's genetic makeup, that is the particular set of genes that the person possesses, the phenotype is the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
329
Genotype and phenotype (these show how genetics can influence the development of an individual) (2) environment
The individual's genotype is the major influencing factor in the development of their phenotype but it is not the only one, phenotype is affected not only by the genes but also by the ENVIRONMENT (genotype + environment = phenotype)
330
Genotype and phenotype (these show how genetics can influence the development of an individual) (3) twin example
An example is identical twins who share the same genotype, if they were separated at birth and raised in a different environments one twin may show a completely different phenotype than the other twin eg exercise levels or types of schooling
331
Psychologists have referred to various disorders to try and explain the difference between genotype and phenotype (1) PKU
An example is using a disorder called phenylketonuria (PKU) which is where individuals are unable to break down phenylalanine, if PKU isn't diagnosed at birth, phenylalanine cannot be broken down leading to brain damage and intellectual impairment
332
The genetic basis of behaviour (1) how much psychological features are genetic
We know that physical characteristics such as height, bone structure, hair and eye colour are inherited, behavioural geneticists are interested in the degree to which psychological characteristics such as ability, temperament and emotional stability are transmitted from parent to offspring
333
The genetic basis of behaviour (2) give example
Some of the most well-researched human psychological characteristics that are thought to be influenced by genes are: intelligence (although this is controversial because of the debate about the relative importance of nature and nurture)
334
The genetic basis of behaviour (3) nature v nurture
Certain psychological disorders (such as schizophrenia and mood disorders such as bipolar depression) and male and female differences - for example the claim that males are more aggressive than females may be explained by evolution and the difference in genetic make-up between males and females (the nature-nurture debate is important here since many psychologists argue that aggression is learnt and not genetic)
335
Twin studies
Are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins
336
Concordance
The extent to which twins share the same characteristics, if identical (monozygotic) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non-identical (dizygotic) twins for musical ability, schizophrenia, etc this would suggest a genetic basis, this is because MZ twins share 100% of each other's genes whereas DZ twins share about 50% (the same as any siblings)
337
Biological structures
The approach believes that an understanding of biological structures and their associated functions can explain psychological processes and characteristics, the human body is a collection of systems which integrate to help us live, there are key structures within these systems which are particularly useful in explaining the behaviour of an individual
338
Neurons
Neurons are the basic 'building blocks' of the nervous system, they are nerve cells which are specialised to receive, process and or transmit information to other cells within the body
339
The central nervous system (1)
Made up of the brain and spinal cord, the spinal cord receives and passes message to and from the brain, and connects to nerves in the peripheral nervous system, the brain can be subdivided into many different areas and structures which are thought to be responsible for certain behaviours
340
The central nervous system (2) neurotransmitters
The brain relies on a large number of chemicals called neurotransmitters and hormones to send signals between neurons, too much or too little of these chemicals can result in over activity or under activity in various parts of the brain which results in changes to thinking, feeling and behaviour
341
The peripheral nervous system
Made up of neurons that transmit messages or information to and from the central nervous system, it has two subsystems: the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
342
The somatic nervous system
Transmits information received by the senses to the central nervous system and sends messages from the central nervous system to the muscles
343
The autonomic nervous system
It's divided into the sympathetic nervous system which increases bodily activities (in response to fight or flight) and the parasympathetic nervous system which maintains or decreases bodily activities
344
The evolution of behaviour (1) Darwin
In 1859 Darwin published 'The Origin of Species' in which he proposed that all species of living things have evolved over time from common ancestors through the process of natural selection
345
The evolution of behaviour (2) survival
The main principle of this theory is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual's survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations ie be naturally selected
346
The evolution of behaviour (3) natural selection
In nature this selection takes place 'naturally', no one 'decides', the selection occurs simply because some traits give the possessor certain advantages - the possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits, if the individual survives but does NOT reproduce the traits do not remain in the gene pool
347
One aspect of human behaviour which has been studied extensively from an evolutionary perspective is AGGRESSION
It is well known that many animal species defend their territory through aggression towards their own species, therefore an animal can have the resources necessary for survival, mating and care of offspring, humans also show signs of being territorial (see other flashcard)
348
As well as animals, humans also show signs of being territorial and often resort to violence to defend what they regard as their territory, eg
Aggression - humans fight to protect their homes and families and sexual selection - just like a peacock, humans display mating behaviours such as wearing makeup to ensure reproductive success, however some psychologists regard the role of evolution in explaining aggression as LIMITED, claiming that learning and environmental influences are more important
349
In humans we can also observe evolutionary behaviours such as the ROOTING REFLEX, in newborn babies this reflex is present at birth
The rooting reflex is an attachment behaviour in newborns where babies turn their head to the breast (promoting survival and therefore adaptive and naturally selected)
350
Research methods - how does the biological approach study human behaviour (1) experimental methods
The role of biological processes in behaviour can be studied in many different ways but biopsychologists favour methods that are precise, objective and highly scientific, they do carry out experiments on animals AND humans in lab conditions but also use other methods
351
Research methods - how does the biological approach study human behaviour (2) scanning technology
Some examples include: various types of brain scanning technology including PET scans, fMRI's and EEG's, can be used to study the structure and functioning of the brain and using twin studies to look at the concordance rates between identical and non-identical twins to help understand the genetic basis of certain behaviours
352
What are the strengths and limitations of the research methods used - what are the strengths and limitations using scientific, lab experiments for drug trials for example?
They have strict variable control and high internal validity so cause and effect can be established to show the direct effects of the drugs and also this high variable control allows the trials to be replicated which is vital in drug trials eg to test that the drug is safe
353
What are the strengths and limitations of the research methods used - what are he strengths and limitations of using scanning techniques to study the brain? (Covered more in depth in year 13)
Scanning techniques have greatly increased our understanding of brain function and allow us to see which parts are active when completing certain tasks eg which parts of the brain are involved in reading, they allow more natural and accurate measurements of brain activity than other techniques which are invasive
354
What are the strengths and limitations of the research methods used - what are the strengths and limitations of using twin studies to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour?
The main issue is separating the role of nature and nurture, the concordance rate for MZ twins is usually higher than for DZ which implies a genetic role, however, MZ twins share a much more similar environment than DZ - so is the difference the result of genes or environment?
355
What are the strengths and limitations of the research methods used - twin studies and separating out nature and nurture (1)
Identical twins, non-identical twins and members of the same family all have genetic similarities, therefore the biological approach argues any similarities in the way that they look or behave must be genetic, however, there is an important confounding variable (!!!), they are also exposed to similar environmental conditions, this means that findings could just as easily be interpreted as supporting nurture rather than nature
356
What are the strengths and limitations of the research methods used - twin studies and separating out nature and nurture (2) diozygotic
This approach also has difficulty accounting for the fact that, in studies, DZ twins often show higher concordance rates than pairs of ordinary siblings, this is likely to be explained by the influence of nurture as DZ's and ordinary siblings both have about 50% (on average) genes in common
357
Evaluation of the biological approach - determinism (1) just biological
It's deterministic in the sense that is sees human behaviour as governed, led by internal, biological causes over which we have no control (a form of GENETIC determinism)
358
Evaluation of the biological approach - determinism (2) legal implications
This has implications for the legal system and wider society, one of the rules of law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions, the discovery of a 'criminal gene', if there was such a thing, may complicate this principle
359
Evaluation of the biological approach - determinism (3) (if scientists discovered a 'criminal gene' that made someone more likely to offend, and this could be used as a defence in court, what would be the implications for society and the legal system?)
We wouldn't be able to hold criminals responsible for their actions, if we are saying that crime is CAUSED by genetics, it implies that criminals can't help it, it would mean that we couldn't punish the hem for their crimes, this goes against the legal system in the UK which works on the assumption that criminals are responsible for their own actions
360
Evaluation of the biological approach - determinism (4) predictive + credibility
However, the strength of determinism is that the causes of human behaviour can be predicted and controlled which gives the approach scientific credibility
361
Evaluation of the biological approach - reductionist (1) genes, neurotransmitters etc.
The biological approach is reductionist as it believes that the complexity of human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down to its smallest component parts such as the action of neurotransmitters, genes, etc
362
Evaluation of the biological approach - reductionist (2) no human context
Whilst this is a strength as reductionism lends itself to scientific enquiry, critics argue that we cannot fully understand a behaviour without taking account of other factors that influence, the biological approach can often be described as taking an oversimplified view of behaviour as it ignores cognitive/social/environmental factors which have an influence on behaviour
363
Evaluation of the biological approach - real life application (1) predictive + treatment development
A strength of the approach is that it provides clear predictions such as the effects of neurotransmitters on behaviour, this increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illnesses such as depression, although these drugs are not effective for all patients, they have revolutionised treatment for many
364
Evaluation of the biological approach - real life application (2) manage conditions
This is a strength of the biological approach because it means that sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life rather than remain in hospital
365
Evaluation of the biological approach - real life application (3) correlation vs causation
However, evidence comes from studies that show a particular drug reduces symptoms of a mental disorder and thus it is assumed that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder (known as TREATMENT FALLACY), this is a bit like assuming that the cause of a headache is lack of paracetamol simply because taking paracetamol is effective in relieving symptoms of a headache - discovering an association between two factors doesn't mean that one is a cause (ie correlation DOES NOT mean causation)
366
Evaluation of the biological approach - real life application (4) follow up from causality
This is a limitation because the biological approach is claiming to have discovered causes where only an association exists
367
Evaluation of the biological approach - scientific credibility (1) use of scientific study
In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the approach makes use of a range of precise and highly scientific methods which are reliable and objective
368
Evaluation of the biological approach - scientific credibility (2) credibility
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method the biological approach gives psychology greater credibility and status as a science
369
Biological approach dreams sheet
LOOK AT MRS CATONS DREAMS SHEET AND ADD TO FLASHCARDS
370
Nature and nurture approaches
Behaviourism and SLT are nurture only, cognitive, humanism and psychodynamic are nature and nurture and biological is nature only
371
Scientific approaches
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive and biological are scientific, humanism and psychodynamic are unscientific
372
SLT is a type of (determinism)
Reciprocal determinism - we exert some control over our environment and the role models we choose to copy though behaviour is still shaped by those around us
373
What approaches focus on learning of behaviour?
Behaviourism and SLT
374
Which approaches use scientific methods?
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive and biological
375
Which approaches listen to individuals describing their experiences?
Psychodynamic and humanism
376
Which approaches stress the importance of cognitive processes?
SLT and cognitive
377
Which approaches study animals in order to understand human behaviour?
Behaviourism
378
Which approaches offer practical applications to treat mental illness?
Behaviourism, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanism and biological
379
Which approaches regard application of ideas to helping people as most important?
Humanism and psychodynamic
380
Which approaches are deterministic?
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive, psychodynamic and biological
381
Which approaches emphasise the role of nature?
Biological and psychodynamic
382
Which approaches focus on the role of nurture?
Behaviourism and SLT
383
Which approaches are reductionist?
Behaviourism, SLT and biological
384
Is the cognitive approach reductionist?
It's more like an overemphasis of cognitive factors
385
Which approaches focus on finding general law?
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive, psychodynamic and biological
386
Which approaches focus on the individual rather than finding general laws?
Humanism
387
Which approaches may be regarded as scientific?
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive and biological
388
SLT practical applications
Cultural differences (gender), social skills training and criminal behaviour
389
Behaviourism practical applications
Systematic desensitisation and flooding and token economy
390
Cognitive practical applications
CBT (cognitive based therapies) and memory
391
Psychodynamic practical applications
Psychoanalysis, gender development, criminal behaviour and mental disorder explanation (bipolar)
392
Humanism practical applications
CCT (client centred therapy)
393
Biological practical applications
Drugs as treatment/therapy
394
Cognitive evidence
Rat-nan (Alampay and Bugelsky) and Levison and Brown
395
Humanism evidence
Q sort - however not really any evidence as subjective so don't have general laws
396
Biological evidence
Twin studies (concordance rates)
397
Approaches using lab studies
Behaviourism, SLT, cognitive and biological
398
Approaches using case studies
Cognitive (but lab studies is the main method they use), psychodynamic, humanism and biological
399
Biological approach mainly uses lab studies but also uses some case studies for unusual behaviour eg
Finneas Gage (?) frontal lobe for personality and scanning techniques (used within a lab study)
400
Humanism is unscientific and subjective because it
Rejects the scientific approach and is abstract and theoretical (which humanists see as a strength)
401
Wundt's introspection method is still used today eg in
Psychoanalysis
402
Approaches using reinforcement
Behaviourism and SLT
403
The aim of cognitive neuroscience is
To relate mental processes to brain structures
404
Strengths and limitations of the cognitive approach
Strengths: lab studies, effective practical applications, contributes to cognitive neuroscience and develops artificial intelligence Limitations: case studies and humans are different to computers as we have emotions
405
Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach
Can't generalise the unusual cases he studied but did then apply it to everyone (he made a general theory from it) Also it's unfalsifiable as there's no proof for the concepts as they're untestable so they can't be proved wrong eg the unconscious, Karl Popper called it "pseudoscience", therefore it's unscientific
406
Reasons why humanists have rejected the scientific method
• they believe it's about the subjective experience so don't want to general to everyone (no general laws, interested in the unique subjective experience as don't want to lose the individuals) • conditions of worth • free will/uniqueness • hierarchy of needs • CCT • incongruence • self actualisation
407
Empirical
Knowledge that's based on evidence (eg empirical evidence)
408
Behaviourism is more scientific than SLT because
It's an example of hard determinism so can be observed and measured whereas SLT is an example of soft determinism as there's an element of free will allowing us to think before responding to a stimulus so it can't be tested as scientifically
409
Psychological approaches through time
1870 - Wundt 1900 - psychodynamic 1920 - behaviourism and SLT 1950 - humanism 1960 - cognitive 1980 - biological Current - cognitive neuroscience
410
Reductionist approach - the difference between behaviourism and SLT
SLT is less reductionist than behaviourism as it takes into account thinking (S-O-R links whereas behaviourism is just S-R links)
411
Determinism - strength
It assumes a cause and effect relationship - this is consistent with a scientific approach in psychology
412
Free will - strength
Since everyday experience gives us the impression that we are exercising free will - this gives the concept face validity
413
Determinism - limitation
It assumes that individuals do not have free will and are not in control of their behaviour - this goes against ideas of individual responsibility
414
Free will - limitation
It is at odds with a scientific approach in psychology, it assumes that we cannot discover causal relationships which is the basis of much research in psychology (even the smallest element of free will means this relationship cannot be established)
415
Reductionism - strength
If we assume that we can break down a behaviour in to its component parts, it allows for the testing of isolated variables to see the effects in a controlled way - this is consistent with a scientific approach in psychology
416
Reductionism - limitation
This approach oversimplifies some very complex behaviours and conditions leading to a loss in validity
417
Holism - strength
It can provide a more complete understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches
418
Holism - limitation
Do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and more theoretical as the explanations become more complex
419
Scientific methods - strength
Gives psychology scientific credibility
420
Scientific methods - limitation
Some would argue that rejecting scientific methods allows us to use more valid methods of investigation which capture the richness of human behaviour
421
Unscientific methods - strength
By focussing on being scientific, we may lose sight of the 'while person' and individuality which characterises us as unique individuals
422
Unscientific methods - limitation
It reduces the scientific credibility of psychology
423
Determinism - strength
It assumes a cause and effect relationship - this is consistent with a scientific approach in psychology
424
Free will - strength
Since everyday experience gives us the impression that we are exercising free will - this gives the concept face validity
425
Determinism - limitation
It assumes that individuals do not have free will and are not in control of their behaviour - this goes against ideas of individual responsibility
426
Free will - limitation
It is at odds with a scientific approach in psychology, it assumes that we cannot discover causal relationships which is the basis of much research in psychology (even the smallest element of free will means this relationship cannot be established)
427
Reductionism - strength
If we assume that we can break down a behaviour in to its component parts, it allows for the testing of isolated variables to see the effects in a controlled way - this is consistent with a scientific approach in psychology
428
Reductionism - limitation
This approach oversimplifies some very complex behaviours and conditions leading to a loss in validity
429
Holism - strength
It can provide a more complete understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches
430
Holism - limitation
Do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and more theoretical as the explanations become more complex
431
Scientific methods - strength
Gives psychology scientific credibility
432
Scientific methods - limitation
Some would argue that rejecting scientific methods allows us to use more valid methods of investigation which capture the richness of human behaviour
433
Unscientific methods - strength
By focussing on being scientific, we may lose sight of the 'while person' and individuality which characterises us as unique individuals
434
Unscientific methods - limitation
It reduces the scientific credibility of psychology
