Attachment

Question 1

Attachment

It is two-way process that endures over time.

TRIGGER WORDS:

1. Bond
2. Leads to certain
3. serves the function

Answer 1

An emotional bond between two people. It leads to a certain behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant.

Question 2

Caregiver

Answer 2

Any person who is providing care for a child,

Question 3

Interactional synchrony

TRIGGER WORDS:

1. two
2. Mirror
3. facial

Answer 3

When two people interact thet tend to mirror what the other is doing in terms of their facial and body movements.

Question 4

Reciprocity

1. responding action od
2. elicit a

Answer 4

Responding to action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner.

Question 5

Multiple attachment

Answer 5

Have one or more attachment figure

Question 6

Primary attachment figure

(Usually a child’s biological mother)

1. closet
2. intensity

Answer 6

The person who has formed the closet bond with a child, demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship.

Question 7

Seperation anxiety

Not neccessarlity the child’s biological father.

TRIGGER WORDS

1. distress

Answer 7

The distress shown by an infant when separted from their caregiver.

Question 8

Stranger anixety

TRIGGER WORDS:

1. Distress
2. unfamilar

Answer 8

The distress shown by an infant when approached or picked up by someone who is unfamilar

Question 9

Imprinting

Answer 9

An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother who takes place during a specific time in development, probably the first few hours after birth hatching.

Question 10

Classical conditoning

Answer 10

Learning through association. A neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an uncondtioal stimlus so it eventually takes om the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response

Question 11

Learning theory

Answer 11

The name given to a group of explanations (classical & operant) which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any inborn tendencies or higher order thinking.

Question 12

Operant conditoning

Answer 12

Learning through reinforcement

Question 13

Social learning theory

Answer 13

Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.

Question 14

Continuity hypothesis

Answer 14

The idea that emotionally secure go on to be emotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults.

Question 15

Critical period

Answer 15

A biologically determined period of time, during which certain characterstics can develop. Outside of this time window such development will not be possible.

Question 16

Internal working model

Answer 16

A mental model of the world which enables individuals to predict and control their enviroment. In the case attachment the model relates to a person’s expecations about relationship.

Question 17

Monotropy (monotropic)

Answer 17

The idea that the one relationship that the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development.

Question 18

Social releaser

Answer 18

A social behaviour or characteristic that elicits caregibing and leads to attachment.

Question 19

Insecure-avoidant

Answer 19

A type of attachment which describes those children who tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others

Question 20

Insecure-resistant

Answer 20

A type of attachment which describes those infants who both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction

Question 21

Secure attachment

Answer 21

This is a strong contented attach of an infant to his or her caregiver which develops as a rsult of sensetive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs

Question 22

Strange situation

Answer 22

A controlled observation desinged to test attachment security

Question 23

Cultural variations

Answer 23

The ways that different groups of people vary in terms of their social practices, and the effects these practices have on development and behaviour.

Question 24

Deprivation

Answer 24

To be deprived to lose something. Loss of emotional care

Question 25

Institutionalisation

Answer 25

The effect of instituional care. The term can be applied widley to the ffect of an institution but our concern focuses specifically on how time spent in an insituation such as an orphange can affect the development of a child

Question 26

Internal working model

Answer 26

A mental model of the world which enables indivduals to predict and control their enviorment. In the case of attachment the model relates to a persons expecations about relationships.

Question 27

Lorenz (1935)

Answer 27

An ethologist studying animal behaviour under relatively natural conditions.

Question 28

Lorenz (1935) - Animal studies (Procedure)

Answer 28

Took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided them into two groups. One group was left with their natural mother while the other eggs were placed in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched the first living thing they saw was Lorenzo and they soon started following him.

Question 29

Lorenz (1935) - Animal studies (Findings)

Answer 29

The goslings quickly divided themeselves up, one following their natural mother and the other following Lorenzo. Lorenzo’s brood shows no recongition of their natural mother.

Question 30

Lorenz (1952) - Animal studies (Long-lasting effects)

Answer 30

Noted several features of imprinting, ege that the process is irreversibe and long lasting. He describe how one of these geese who imprinted on him, called martina used to sleep on his bed every night..

Question 31

Lorenz (1952) - Animal studies (Long-lasting effects) Sexual imprinting

Answer 31

He also noted that this early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences, calledd sexual imprinting. Animals (Especially birds) will choose to mate with the same kind of object upon whic they were imprinted.

Question 32

Harlow (1959)

Answer 32

Conducted landmark research on attachment. Named his report ‘The origins of love and sought’ to demonstartate that mother love was not based on the feeding bond between mother and infant as predicted by learning theory.

Question 33

Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Procedure)

Answer 33

Harlow creared two wire mothers each with a different ‘head’. One wire mother additonally was wrapped in soft cloth. 8 infant rehsus monkey were studied for a period of 165 days. For 4 monkeys the milk bottle was on the cloth-covered mother and on the plain wire’mother’ for the other 4 monkeys.

Question 34

Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Findings)

Cloth-covered mother

Answer 34

• All 8 monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth-covered mother whether or not this mother had a feeding bottle.

Those monkeys who fed from the wire mother ony spent a short amount of time getting milk then returned to the cloth-covered mother.
When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother, and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth covered mother for reassurance. Findings suggest that infants fo not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person offering the comfort.

Question 35

Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Long-lasting effects)

Answer 35

Later on the rhesus monkeys noted many consequences of their early attachment experiences and the motherless monkeys were sociallt abnormally even when they had contact comfort.

Question 36

Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Findings)

Wired mother

Answer 36

Those monkeys who fed from the wire mother ony spent a short amount of time getting milk then returned to the cloth-covered mother.

Question 37

What happened when monkeys were frightened

Answer 37

When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother, and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth covered mother for reassurance.

Suggests that monkey

Question 38

What do findings of Harlow’s study suggest

Answer 38

Infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but the person offering contact comfort

Question 39

Suggest one way in which studies of attachment could be improved using controlled observations [ 3 marks]

Answer 39

• affords the opportunity for control of extraneous variables.
• E.g can control the setting which may change affect the results.
• the studies could easily be replicated so easy test for reliability
• Fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time.
• large sample = resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Question 40

State two effects of instiutionalisation [ 2 marks]

Answer 40

1. delayed language development

2. delayed physical development, eg restricted growth

Question 41

Instiutionalisation

Answer 41

Refers to the effects of growing up in an orphanage or children’s home. Children who are raised in these institutions often suffer from a lack of emotional care, which means that children are unable to form attachments.

Question 42

In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-avoidant
children? Shade one box only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan

Answer 42

B

Question 43

n van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-resistant
children? Shade one box only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan

Answer 43

D

Question 44

In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following attachment types was found to be most common in all of the countries
investigated? Shade one box only.
A Anxious-avoidant
B Anxious-resistant
C Disorganised
D Secure

Answer 44

In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following attachment types was found to be most common in all of the countries
investigated? Shade one box only.
A Anxious-avoidant
B Anxious-resistant
C Disorganised
D Secure

Question 45

In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following statements is correct?

Shade one box only.
A Cross-cultural studies of attachment only investigate the
variation between cultures and not the variation within cultures

B There was no difference in the variation within cultures
compared to the variation between cultures

C The variation between cultures was greater than the
variation within cultures

D The variation within cultures was greater than the variation
between cultures

Answer 45

D

Question 46

Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.

‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem

moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’

With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 - outline
[4 Marks]

Interaction synchrony

Answer 46

Adults and babies respond in time to sustain communication

Question 47

Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.

‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem

moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’

With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2
[4 Marks]
Reciprocity/turn-taking

Answer 47

reciprocity - ‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back…’

Question 48

Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.

‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem

moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’

With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 application
interactional synchrony
[4 Marks]

Answer 48

‘…as if they are one person..’/ ‘…perfectly in time with each other..’

Question 49

wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.

‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem

moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’

With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 - outline
[4 Marks]

Answer 49

Interaction flows both ways between adult and infanti

Question 50

Explain how such observational research might be refinded through the use of behavioural categories [4 marks]

Answer 50

• Allow researcher/obserbers to tally observations into prearranged groupings
• Allow for more objective/scientific data recordings
• could result in greater reliability
• enable proposal of testable hypothesis

Question 51

What is meant by ‘reciprocity’ in the context of caregiver-infant interaction?
[2 marks]

Answer 51

Responding to action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner.

Question 52

Support for Reciprocity
AO3
Jaffe et al 1973

Answer 52

Showed that from birth babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns, as people when having a conversation.

Question 53

Support for Reciprocity
AO3
Feldman (2007)

Answer 53

Interaction becomes more frequent and reciprocal from 3mths old, therefore reciprocity develops with age.

Question 54

Support for Interactional Synchronicity

Isabella et al. (1989)

Answer 54

Observed 30 mothers and infants interactions and assessed degree of synchrony.
Also assessed quality of mother-infant attachments.
= high levels of synchrony assoc. with high quality attachments.

Question 55

Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1

Answer 55

-Study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.

This suggests that imitation behaviour is perhaps not learnt but instead must be an innate response.s

Question 56

Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1
Findings

Answer 56

They found that theory was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model and even later concluded in another study that this synchronised behaviour was evident in infants only three days old.

Question 57

Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1
What does this suggest

Answer 57

That Iimitation behaviour is perhaps not learnt but instead must be an innate response.s

Question 58

Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.

Answer 58

Meltzoff describes this as a three way process where infants identify their imitation, associate their own acts, and then project their own internal experiences onto others performing similar acts.

Question 59

Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.
Suggestion

Answer 59

This shows that infants are able to acquire an understanding of what people are thinking or feeling, thus supporting the ‘theory of mind’.

Question 60

Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.
Why is this a strength?

Answer 60

As it demonstrates the value of research as a fundamental part of conducting social relationships.

Question 61

Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen

Answer 61

couldn’t distinguish l from videotaped interactions with their mother, suggesting that infants are not actually responding to the adult

Question 62

Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen
SUGGESTION

Answer 62

This shows that there is a problem with the procedure rather than the ability of infants to imitate their caregiver, suggesting there is an inadequate amount of replicated studies surrounding research into infant and caregiver interactions.

Question 63

Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen -
LINK SENTENCE
Interactional syncrony

Answer 63

This implies that there is a lack of reliability within the studies.

Question 64

Discuss infant-caregiver interactions. Refer to reciprocity and interactional synchrony in your answer. [16 mark]

What to include:

Answer 64

Define Reciprocity (AO1)
Define interactional synchrony (AO1)
Give a study of Reciprocity (AO1)
What it suggests (AO1)
Give a study of Interactional synchrony (AO3)
What it suggests (AO1)
Give a study of Reciprocity strength/Limitation (AO3)

Question 65

Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]

AO3

Answer 65

Discuss Lorenzo & Harlow study
Implications of Animal Studies of Attachment
Evaluating Animal Studies of Attachment
Important practical application

Question 66

Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Humans and monkeys are similar
Green (1994)

Answer 66

States that, on a biological level at least, all mammals (including rhesus monkeys) have the same brain structure as humans; the only differences relates to size and the number of connections.

Question 67

Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Important practical applications

Question 68

Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Weaknesses

Results cannot be generalised to humans

Answer 68

It is questionable whether findings and conclusions can be extrapolated and applied to complex human behaviours. It is unlikely that observations of goslings following a researcher or rhesus monkeys clinging to cloth-covered wire models reflects the emotional connections and interaction that characterises human attachments.

Question 69

Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Weaknesses

Answer 69

Research is unethical

The use of animals in research can be questioned on ethical grounds. It could be argued that animals have a right not to be researched/ harmed. The pursuit of academic conclusions for human benefits could be seen as detrimental to non-human species.

Question 70

Briefly evaluate research into caregiver-infant interaction.
[4 marks]
AO3 
Failure to Replicate
 Koepke et al (1983)

Answer 70

Koepke et al (1983) failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore’s findings due to the fact it was less carefully controlled. However, Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen and found that infants couldn’t distinguish l from videotaped interactions with their mother, suggesting that infants are not actually responding to the adult.

• research may be socially sensitive, eg implications for working mothe

Question 71

Briefly evaluate research into caregiver-infant interaction.
[4 marks]
AO3
well-controlled – studies ‘capture’ micro-sequences of interaction

Answer 71

A strength is that controlled observations often capture fine details as they are generally well-controlled procedures. EVIDENCE/EXAMPLE: For example, both the mother and the infant are filmed, often from multiple angles, this ensures that fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed. Furthermore, babies are unaware that they are being observed so their behaviour does not change in response to controlled observations which is generally a problem for observational research. EVALUATION: This is positive because it means that in general the research has high internal validity — it is measuring what it is intending to measure.
Weaknesses:

Question 72

Use your knowledge of the effects of institutionalisation to advise Anca’s new parents
about what to expect.
[5 marks]

Answer 72

• Delayed intellectual development – Anca may struggle more at school than other children, concepts as quickly
• disinhibited attachment – Anca may not know what counts as ‘appropriate’ behaviour towards strangers
• emotional development – Anca may experience more temper tantrums, etc.
• lack of internal working model – Anca may have difficulty interacting with peers, forming close relationships, etc.
• Anca may have been adopted before the age of 6 months and therefore and effects may not be as severe/long term had she been adopted later

Question 73

Discuss the findings of research into cultural variations in attachment.
[8 marks]

Answer 73

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) – credit knowledge of individual percentages and
more general pattern of findings; more variation within countries than between countries
• Simonelli et al (2014) – lower rates of secure attachment and higher rates of insecure-avoidant
in Italian study attributed to long working hours
• Kyoung (2005) – details of comparison between US and Korean children
• Sagi et al (1991) – high rates of insecure-resistant attachments in Israeli children

meta-analyses include very large samples increasing validity of findings
• discussion of more variation within countries than between countries
• samples in studies may not represent the culture as a whole
• strange situation may be biased towards American/British culture
• more general methodological/ethical criticisms of the strange situation must be linked to the
findings of research into cultural variations for credit.

Question 74

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s (1988) Cultural variations

Answer 74

Meta-analysis summarized findings from 8 countries, The meta- analysis examined 32 studies and consulted nearly 2000 Strange Situation classifications in total.

Question 75

8 Countries in Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg ’s (1988)

Answer 75

UK, US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Germany & Israel.

Question 76

The meta-analysis yielded a number of findings and conclusions:

Answer 76

• Average findings were consistent with Ainsworth’s original research = Secure 65% - Avoidant 21% - Resistant 14%
  Intra-cultural variation was nearly 15 times greater than the cross-cultural variations. Van Ijzendoorn speculated that this was linked to differences in socio-economic factors and levels of stress that varied between samples used within each country.
  6/8 countries produced findings that were proportionally consistent with Ainsworth & Bell (70).
  Japan & Israel revealed a higher incidence of resistant than avoidant children.
  Chinese findings revealed the lowest rate of secure attachments (50%) with the remaining children falling into the other categories equally.
  It was concluded that the modest cross-cultural differences reflect the effects of mass media, which portrays similar notions of parenting.

Question 77

Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg

Strengths

Answer 77

Comparison is aided by the standardised methodology. The use of the strange situation as a procedure means that a comparison can be made across cultures, and the reliability is therefore high

Question 78

Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg
The study was not globally representative

Weaknesses

Answer 78

Recognised that data from less Western-oriented cultures were required to establish a more global perspective attachment classifications, pointing out that Africa, South America, and Eastern European socialist countries were not represented.

Question 79

Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg - Overall findings are misleading
AO3

Answer 79

As a disproportionately high number of the studies reviewed were conducted in the USA (18/32), the overall findings would have been distorted by these. This means that the apparent consistency between cultures might not genuinely reflect how much attachment types vary between cultures.

Question 80

Applying Strange Situation procedures and behavioural categories is ethnocentric –
AO3 Weaknesses

Answer 80

Cross-cultural research using the Strange Situation judges and categorises infant behaviour according to behavioural categories that were developed following observations of middle-class American infants. This means that when researchers interpret non-American infant behaviour, it is being judged against an American standard. Eg. an infant exploring the playroom by themselves would be classed as avoidant based on American standards but is valued as reflecting independence in Germany

Question 81

Name three of the stages of attachment identified by Schaffer.
[3 marks]

Answer 81

• The beginnings of attachment
• Discriminate attachment
• Multiple attachment stage

Question 82

Which two of the following are associated with an insecure-resistant attachment type?
Choose two from the options A, B, C, D and E.

Answer 82

A Extreme stranger anxiety

C Low willingness to explore the new environment

Question 83

Outline one or more ways in which behaviourists treat phobias.
[6 marks]
Systematic desensitisation

Answer 83

Systematic desensitisation:
• based on classical conditioning – counterconditioning
• relaxation training – fear and relaxation cannot coexist (reciprocal inhibition)
• formation of anxiety hierarchy
• gradual exposure (stepped approach) leading to eventual extinction.

Question 84

Outline one or more ways in which behaviourists treat phobias.
[6 marks]
Flooding

Answer 84

• Immediate exposure to phobic stimulus
• exhaustion of phobic response
• prevention of avoidance

Question 85

Outline the findings of the role of the father in attachment. [4 marks]

Answer 86

• Not biologically equipped to form attachments]
• ‘Playmate role’
• Sensitve responsiveness

Question 87

AO3 The role of the father

Geiger (1996)

Answer 87

Fathers play interactions are more exciting than mothers

Question 88

AO3 The role of the father (1999)

Answer 88

Fathers are unable to detect low level infant distress

Biological determinism

Question 89

The role of the father
Belsky et al. (2009)
AO3

Answer 89

Fathers form secure attachments when in intimate marriages

Question 90

Studies for role of the father

Answer 90

Schaffer and Emerson - Father less likely to be primary attachment figures
Bowlby (1951) - consequenes of absent father
Lamb et al. (1987) - role of the father is complex; engagement (direct interaction)