atomic structure (p4) Flashcards
1
Q
what is the radius of an atom compared to the nucleus?
A
atom: 1 x 10^-10m
nucleus: less than 1/10,000th the radius of the atom.
- most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
2
Q
describe the basic structure of an atom:
A
positively charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
- electrons are arranged at different energy levels away from the nucleus.
3
Q
how can electromagnetic radiation affect electrons?
A
- by absorbing electromagnetic radiation, electrons can move up an electron shell, to a higher energy level, as they have enough energy. the electron has become ‘excited’
- it can then release the electromagnetic radiation back out, and then descend back to its original electron shell soon after
4
Q
describe the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom:
A
- the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. atoms therefore have no overall electric charge.
- all atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons: atomic number (on the bottom).
- total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number (on the top).
5
Q
what are isotopes?
A
- atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
6
Q
describe ionisation:
A
ionisation is where ionising radiation is so strong that it’s able to knock one of the outermost electrons off the atom, as it has absorbed enough energy to leave the atom. this leaves more protons than electrons, making it a positive ion.
7
Q
describe the development of the model of the atom:
A
- democritus thought that everything was made up of small molecules that couldn’t be broken down any further, and are separated by empty space (atomic theory)
- john dalton believed everything was made up of small, solid spheres, that could not be divided, and that different spheres made up different elements
- j.j. thompson believed that atoms where general balls of positive charge, with small, discrete spheres of negative charge inside (plum pudding model)
- ernest rutherford created the nuclear model, showing a compact nucleus of positive charge, surrounded by a cloud of negative charge (this would collapse in on itself) - from the alpha particle scattering experiment.
- niels bohr discovered that electrons orbited the nucleus on electron shells
- later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of the nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge: protons.
- james chadwick discovered neutrons in the nucleus. this was about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific idea.
8
Q
why would Ernest Rutherford’s model collapse in on itself?
A
the surrounding negative electrons would be attracted to the positive nucleus, causing them to rush inwards
9
Q
describe the alpha particle scattering experiment in more detail:
A
- scientists took a piece of gold foil (can be hammered until it’s just a few atoms thick)
- fired tiny alpha particles at the gold foil.
- alpha particles have a positive charge
- most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil, without changing direction.
- sometimes, an alpha particle was deflected (changed direction), as it passed through, and sometimes, an alpha particle would simply bounce straight back off the foil.
- the fact that most of the alpha particles went through the gold foil told scientists that atoms are mainly empty space.
- immediately, they knew the plum pudding model must be wrong.
- because some of the alpha particles were deflected, they knew the centre of the atom must have positive charge (any alpha particle that comes close to the positive
centre of an atom is repelled). - because some alpha particles bounced straight back, the scientists were told that the centre of an atom must contain a great deal of mass.
10
Q
describe radioactive decay:
A
- when an isotope’s nucleus is unstable (only one or two of an element’s isotopes tends to be stable, the rest are unstable), it can emit radiation in order to become more stable (either in the form of alpha, beta or gamma radiation, or by just emitting neutrons) and decay into another element
- this radioactive decay is totally random - the activity is the rate at which it decays (measured in becquerels Bq).
- 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
11
Q
what does it mean if we say a material is radioactive?
A
it consists of unstable isotopes that can decay
12
Q
how can we measure the radioactive decay at a source?
A
we can do this by using a geiger-muller tube and counter, which records all of the decays that reaches it each second - the count-rate is the number of decays recorded each second by the detector, and can be used to estimate the activity
13
Q
what is the difference between activity and the count-rate?
A
activity is the rate at which the unstable nucleus decays (measured in becquerels), whereas the count-rate is the rate at which radioactive emissions are detected by a detector (e.g. a Geiger-Muller tube).
14
Q
describe alpha radiation:
A
- the same as a helium nucleus (2 neutrons, 2 protons). no electrons, overall charge of 2+
- large, travel 5cm through the air before they stop, easily stopped by collisions with other molecules
- easy to stop (single sheet of paper)
- very strongly ionising, due to large size and strong charge
15
Q
describe beta radiation:
A
- an electron which is ejected from the nucleus at a very high speed (formed inside the nucleus when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. the proton stays in the nucleus).
- charge of -1, virtually no mass
- travel several metres in air before stopping.
- stopped by a few mm of aluminium
- quite strongly ionising
16
Q
describe gamma radiation:
A
- a type of electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus, coming in the form of a wave
- often emitted after alpha or beta radiation, as a way of the nucleus getting rid of a bit of extra energy
- travels several metres in air before stopping.
- tend to pass straight through materials, due to no mass or charge, can’t collide with the atoms. therefore weakly ionising
- stopped by thick lead or concrete
17
Q
what is neutron radiation?
A
if a nucleus contains too many neutrons, making it unstable, it can throw out a neutron to increase its stability
18
Q
what are nuclear equations, and what can they be used for?
A
represent radioactive decay.
19
Q
how are alpha particles represented in a nuclear equation?
A
4 He
2
20
Q
how are beta particles represented in a nuclear equation?
A
0 e
-1
21
Q
what does radon form when it undergoes alpha decay?
A
219 radon = 215 polonium + 4 He
86 84 2
- when radon decays, both its mass number and atomic number decreases.
22
Q
what does carbon form when it undergoes beta decay?
A
14 carbon = 14 nitrogen + 0 e
6 7 -1
- beta decay does not cause the mass number to change (as although it’s lost an electron, it’s gained a proton, so overall the mass hasn’t changed), but causes the atomic number to increase, as it’s gained a proton
23
Q
do gamma rays cause decay?
A
the emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or charge of a nucleus to change, as it’s pure energy and it itself has no mass or charge
24
Q
what is the equation for neutron emission?
- use beryllium 9 as an example
A
- subtract one from the mass number, as it lost one neutron
9 Be = 8 Be + 1n
4 4 0
25
what else can you think of an atom's atomic number as?
the atom's charge, for example, the atomic number of a helium atom is 2, so its charge is 2+
- the atomic number of an electron is -1, as its charge is -1
26
what is the half-life of an isotope?
- the time it takes for the number of radioactive/unstable nuclei of the isotope in a sample to halve.
- the time it takes for the number of decays (or activity) from a sample containing the isotope to fall to half its initial level.
they're both perfectly correlated as fewer radioactive nuclei means a lower activity
27
what is the activity of a sample?
the overall rate of decay of all the isotopes in the sample
- the rate of decay is random
- measured in becquerels, where 1 Bq is 1 decay per second
28
what happens to the activity as a substance decays more and more?
over time, as more and more particles decay, the number of unstable particles decreases.
- this means that now, as there are fewer particles left to decay, the overall rate of decay (activity) also decreases
29
how do you work out the half-life of a substance based off of a graph showing its count rate?
1. half life is the amount of time taken for half of the nuclei in a sample to decay, or for the count rate to halve.
2. find the count rate at the start on the graph, and halve it.
3. find the half count rate value on the graph, then read across and down, to the years, usually.
4. the number of years is the half-life of the substance.
30
how do you calculate a decline in emission?
'the initial activity of a sample is 350Bq. what is the final activity as a percentage after 2 half lives?'
1. work out the activity after 2 half lives.
- after 1 half life, the activity is 350 / 2 = 175
- after 2 half lives, the activity is 175 / 2 = 87.5
2. express the activity as a percentage of the original activity.
- (87.5 / 350) x 100 = 25%
- the final activity is 25% of the initial activity.
31
how would you answer this question?
'The half-life of a radioactive source is 40 hours. There are initially 3,000,000 radioactive nuclei in the sample. How many nuclei will remain after 5 days?'
1. Find out how many half-lives there will be
- 5 days x 24 hours = 120 hours
- 120 hours / 40 hours = 3 half lives
2. Halve the number of radioactive nuclei that many times
- 3,000,000 / 2 = 1, 500,000
- 1, 500,000 = 750,000
- 750,000 / 2 = 375,000
32
what is irradiation?
exposing an object to nuclear radiation (e.g. ionising: alpha, beta, gamma or non-ionising: ultraviolet, microwave). some medical equipment is sterilised using gamma radiation. this does not make the object radioactive, as it only comes in contact with the radiation, not the radioactive isotope
- most medical objects are sterilised through heating, but some objects cannot be heated, so they must be exposed to irradiation instead.
33
describe the process of sterilising syringes through irradiation:
- place syringe in plastic wrapper - stops bacteria from entering after sterilisation.
- place object in a lead box that acts as a shield for workers from the radiation. object is near radioactive isotope that emits gamma radiation.
- removing the internal lead shield allows gamma radiation to irradiate the object. this gamma radiation kills any bacteria present.
34
what is radioactive contamination?
this is where unwanted radioactive isotopes end up on other materials. this is hazardous, as the radioactive atoms decay and release ionising radiation, irradiating you
35
what determines how harmful radiation is?
- type of radiation
- where you're exposed to it
- the amount of radiation you receive
36
list some ionising and non-ionising types of radiation:
ionising:
- alpha
- beta
- gamma
- x-rays
non-ionising:
- ultraviolet
- visible light
- infra-red
- microwave
- radiowaves
37
why is ionising radiation dangerous?
can enter living cells and interact with the molecules inside
- can ionise or damage our DNA, which can cause mutations, and in rare cases, can lead to uncontrollable cell division and cancer
- ultraviolet radiation, although not always considered ionising, can also lead to cancer
38
what are the most dangerous external sources of radiation?
- alpha is no longer the most dangerous, as its weak penetrating power means it's easily stopped by the skin
- beta and gamma become the most dangerous, as they can penetrate
39
what are the most dangerous sources of radiation when it's on the body (contamination), or inside the body (swallowing)?
alpha radiation, as it would be able to make it into the cells
40
what determines the dosage of radiation received?
- how far away from the source you are
- how long you're exposed to the source for
- how radioactive the substance is
41
what are the different levels of danger when a person comes into contact with different types of radiation?
alpha radiation: strongly ionising, but easily stopped by dead skin cells. dangerous if inhaled or swallowed. can damage cells badly once inside.
beta radiation: quite ionising and can penetrate the skin and into the body.
gamma radiation: weakly ionising. can penetrate the body but likely to pass right through it.
42
what precautions must you take around ionising radiation?
- can increase risk of cancer.
alpha radiation: use gloves.
beta and gamma radiation: use a lead apron.
- with high levels of radiation, a lead apron may not be enough. when working with nuclear fuel, for example, you must be protected by lead walls and a lead-glass screen.
43
what is another method of reducing radiation exposure (minimising irradiation and reducing contamination)?
- use a radiation monitor: measures how much radiation has been received.
- doesn't stop radiation, but means that we can identify if a person has worked with too much radiation, and so can stop them from working near any more radioactive isotopes
- handling a radioactive item with tools (tongs), instead of directly using our hands. keep the item in a lead-lined box
44
what is the importance of peer review, and what is it?
- over the years, scientists have explored the effects of radiation on humans.
- it's important that these studies are published and then shared with other scientists.
- this allows the findings to be checked (peer review).
45
what are two natural sources of background radiation?
1. radioactive rock (e.g. granite). in cornwall, for example, this is a major source of background radiation.
2. cosmic rays from space (very high energy particles which travel through space and crash into the Earth's atmosphere). this can be created by a supernova.
46
what are two human sources of background radiation?
1. fall out from nuclear weapons testing - has released radioactive isotopes into the environment for decades.
2. nuclear accidents - radioactive isotopes are released by nuclear accidents, which takes decades to clear up.
47
what two factors can affect the levels of background radiation, or you radiation dose?
- occupation
- location
48
what is radiation dose measured in?
- radiation dose is measured in sieverts (Sv)
49
describe the half-life range between radioactive isotopes, and the associated hazards:
- half lives can vary between isotopes - some radioative isotopes have long half-lives, some have very short.
- however, the radioactivity of all isotopes will decrease over time.
- if a radioactive substance has a long half-life, we know it will remain radioactive for a long time.
- the longer a substance remains radioactive, the more dangerous it is.
50
how can gamma isotopes be used as medical tracers?
- either enter through injection (will move through bloodstream) or swallowing (absorbed through intestine into bloodstream)
- can track the movement and accumulation of isotopes around the body, by tracking the radiation they emit
- can check if organs are working properly, by seeing if they absorb the right amount of a substance
- tend to use gamma rays as they're less harmful than alpha or beta
- also want to use isotopes with as short a half-life as possible, so they only emit radiation for a short period while we take the measurements, then they stop being harmful. also use a low dose
51
what is the benefit of using radiation medical tracers?
helps us to diagnose diseases we were already suspicious about
52
what is radiation sickness?
- if our cells receive a large enough dose of radiation, they can be killed/destroyed entirely
- receiving a large amount of radiation across the entire body can lead to radiation sickness, leading to vomiting, tiredness and hair loss
53
how can iodine be used in the thyroid gland?
- a radioactive isotope of iodine can be used to check the function of the thyroid gland.
- the radioactive isotope will be absorbed and traced as it moves into the thyroid gland.
54
evaluate the use of radiation in medicine:
- radiotherapy can be harmful. doctors must be careful during radiotherapy, as gamma rays can kill normal tissue too. therefore, they need to strike a balance between killing cancer cells and not killing too many normal cells. makes patients feel ill
- gamma rays are good for exploration of internal organs, due to their weak ionising power. they allow life-threatening conditions to be diagnosed, whilst not ionising too much tissue.
55
what are the risks of radiation?
- radiotherapy has a lot of side effects, e.g. radiation sickness.
- although radiation sickness can be seen as negative, there are more benefits than risks with this treatment. radiotherapy can kill cancer cells and remove tumours, which is obviously a huge benefit.
56
what is nuclear fission?
- splitting up of large and unstable nuclei into smaller nuclei, which releases lots of energy, which is how we get our nuclear energy on Earth
- either spontaneous (rare), or by absorbing a neutron which splits the nucleus, making it more unstable
- when the nucleus splits, it forms two smaller, equal daughter nuclei, along with two or three neutrons, energy, and gamma rays.
- all of the fission products have kinetic energy.
- these neutrons can then be absorbed by more nuclei, triggering fission again.
- chain reaction. this can be stopped by control rods, which absorb the neutrons released by the split nuclei, and slow down the reaction.
57
what are the steps of nuclear fission?
- when the larger nucleus, due to a collision with a slow-moving neutron, becomes less stable, it splits and forms two smaller, equal daughter nuclei, along with two or three neutrons, and energy, in the form of gamma radiation.
- all of the fission products have kinetic energy.
- these neutrons can then be absorbed by more nuclei, triggering fission again.
58
how do nuclear reactors control the nuclear fission?
- chain reaction. this can be stopped by control rods, which absorb the neutrons released by the split nuclei, and slow down the reaction.
- the released energy can be used to heat up water and turn it into steam, which can be used to turn a turbine, connected to an electricity generator
59
what are the pros and cons of nuclear energy?
pros:
- uranium or plutonium fuel is relatively cheap
- produces a large and steady amount of energy
- not too bad for the environment, doesn't produce greenhouse gases like fossil fuels
cons:
- very expensive to build nuclear power plants
- the waste produced is expensive to get rid of, as it must be buried underground in nuclear bunkers
- risk of major disaster/meltdown due to malfunctions
60
give examples of when nuclear fission is controlled, and when it's not controlled:
- a controlled chain reaction is used to release energy in a nuclear reactor.
- the explosion in a nuclear weapon/bomb is caused by an uncontrolled fission chain reaction.
61
what is nuclear fusion?
- when two smaller, lighter nuclei (e.g. hydrogen) fuse together to make a larger, heavier nucleus (e.g. helium)
- releases tons of energy, the process that fuels stars, how elements heavier than hydrogen were made
- however, some of the mass of the nuclei can be converted into a massive amount of energy, which is released as radiation.
- nuclear fusion is NOT a chain reaction.
- not possible to do on Earth yet.
62
what are the pros and cons of nuclear fusion?
pros:
- doesn't produce radioactive waste
- can easily produce the hydrogen needed for the fuel
cons:
- requires very high temperatures and pressures (to overcome the repulsion of positively charged nuclei), so we can't currently do it on Earth
63
what is radiotherapy?
- using radiation to kill harmful cells, such as cancer cells
EXTERNAL SOURCES: emit gamma rays targeted at the cancer site from lots of different angles
INTERNAL SOURCES: radioactive source is inside the body, either next to or inside the cancer. usually uses beta radiation, which is more damaging than gamma rays, but can't pass as far through the body
