Assumptions Flashcards
Define the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function’.
LOBF is the idea that certain parts of the brain are responsible certain functions when it comes to controlling behaviour.
Explain the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function’.
There are 4 lobes in the brain. The frontal lobe is in charge of personality, decision-making and creativity whereas, the parietal lobe is responsible for sensory processing and spatial interpretation. The temporal lobe processes sound, memory and has Wernicke’s area (language comprehension). The occipital lobe processes visual information.
Give the example for the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function’.
This has been proven through the research conducted on Phineas Gage where an iron pole was blown through his frontal lobe. He recovered very quickly however, as time passed, his family and friends stated that he became more aggressive and angry which was very different from his original personality. This shows that LOBF can influence behaviour due to the change in personality because his frontal lobe was damaged which controls personality.
Define the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters’.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers which are passed from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the synapse.
Explain the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters’.
Electrical signals cause neurotransmitters to be released from the presynaptic neuron which diffuse across the synapse as a chemical messenger and then are absorbed by the postsynaptic neuron. It’s then converted back into an electrical message and carries along the neuron.
Give the example for the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters’.
The neurotransmitter ‘dopamine’ allows you to feel pleasure and satisfaction and can increase your attention span/memory. If you don’t get enough of it then you can become less excited about certain things.
Define the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences’.
Evolutionary psychologists explain human behaviour based on Darwin’s theory of evolution, natural selection. This suggests that the inherited structure of the human mind is the product of evolutionary processes.
Explain the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences’.
These psychologists believe that individuals with most suited characteristics to their environment are more likely to have evolved which means they are more likely to survive. Their genes are passed on to offspring who will also be more likely to survive. This means that genes in evolved families are more likely to be passed to each new generation (survival of the fittest).
Give the example for the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences’.
A fear of the dark is an example of this. In the past, most predators hunted at night, when we are especially vulnerable to be attacked due to poor eyesight so it was important that ancestors stay safe during the night. If not, they would die but over time this fear became instinctual and has been passed down today.
Define the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by the tripartite model of personality’.
This approach states that personality is not one whole, it is split into 3 parts which are often in conflict (id, ego and superego).
Explain the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by the tripartite model of personality’.
The id is the ‘pleasure principle’ which is in need of instant gratification. This is present since birth and it is viewed to be the only part of the mind present as an infant. The ego is the ‘reality principle’ which takes care of something when it’s needed. It’s associated with reason/logic and deals with conflict between the id and superego. The superego is the ‘morality principle’ and it’s an image of what you want to become. The ego ideal derives from rewards and positive models and the conscience internalises punishments/warnings.
Give the example for the assumption ‘behaviour can be explained by the tripartite model of personality’.
According to Freud, violent criminals often lack a sense of morality/remorse and seek instant pleasure/gratification regardless of the cost. This is particularly true in psychopaths. Lack of ego/superego. Dominant id.
Define the assumption ‘unconscious mind’.
Freud stated that there are different levels of consciousness, similar to an iceberg. Conscious is what we are currently aware of, thoughts and perceptions (tip of iceberg). Sub/pre conscious is what we can be conscious of if we tried (memories). Unconscious mind cannot be accessed but can still influence behaviour (iceberg under the water).
Explain the assumption ‘unconscious mind’.
Freud says that the unconscious mind has unresolved conflict and these influence our behaviour. Conflict between 3 partites creates anxiety. To protect the ego we have ego defence mechanisms which occur when there is conflict between the id, ego or superego. For example, regression; the abandonment of age appropriate coping strategies in favour of more child-like ones, retreating back to a time when one feels safe. Eg, displacement, transferring undesirable impulses from 1 person to an object/another person. Someone angry at their boss may go home and kick their cat.
Give an example for the ‘unconscious mind’ assumption.
Gothelf et al found that regression, denial, projection and repression were common in psychiatric patients suffering from anorexia- they relied on more mature defence mechanisms than other teens.
Define the ‘childhood experiences’ assumption.
According to Freud, we go through psychosexual development where the id, ego and superego develop. Early childhood experiences shape our adult personality and future relationships.
Explain the ‘childhood experiences’ assumption.
5 psychosexual stages:
Oral stage - 0-1 years. Libido focus - mouth.
Anal stage - 1-3. Libido focus - anus.
Phallic stage - 3-6. Libido focus - genitals.
Latency stage - 7-puberty. Libido focus - none.
Genital stage - puberty-adolescence. Libido focus - genitals.
Fixation - can lead to influence in adult personality.
Frustration/overindulging - at stages = fixation.
Give an example for the ‘childhood experiences’ assumption.
The oral stage:
Healthy development - breast-feeding, only id present, knowing we do not have full control over environment.
Overindulged - (fed as soon as they want, weaned too late) makes them optimistic, gullible, dependent.
Frustration - (kept waiting for food, weaned to early) makes them aggressive, pessimistic, envious.
Define the assumption ‘blank slate’.
Behaviourists believe that we are born a blank slate (tabula rasa). We learn all our behaviour and depend upon interactions and experiences with the environment.
Explain the ‘blank slate’ assumption.
They say we are born completely neutral, with only the most basic responses like crying, pain, hunger and will be moulded by the environment. The environment is a significant influence on our behaviour. The environment can determine how we will behave based on past experiences, new experiences, associations we make, reinforcement, we receive and observations, we make of other people. We do not have free will.
Give an example for the ‘blank slate’ assumption.
Bandura’s bobo doll study - they observed the models being aggressive and imitated them. The child learnt from their environment and showed aggressive behaviour. In the control group, adults didn’t behave aggressively so children didn’t show aggressive behaviour.
Define the ‘conditioning’ assumption.
Behaviourists believe that behaviour is learnt through the environment we grow up in. There are 2 types of conditioning; classical and operant conditioning.
Give an example for the ‘conditioning’ assumption.
In prisons, there are token economies in place, where good behaviour leads to tokens. Then these can be exchanged for desired items, eg cigarettes or food. This is positive reinforcement as they are receiving a reward for show good/desirable behaviour.
Define the assumption ‘humans and animals learn in similar ways’.
According to behaviourists, humans and animals learn in similar ways so we can study animals in a lab and extrapolate the results and apply them to human behaviour.
Explain the assumption ‘humans and animals learn in similar ways’.
The only difference between humans and animals, in relation to learning is brain size/structure. As a result, findings from animal studies can be applied to predict and make generalisations about human behaviour. For example, Pavlov used dogs to develop the concept of classical conditioning and Skinner used pigeons
to develop the principles of operant conditioning.
Give an example for the assumption ‘humans and animals learn in similar ways’.
Skinner developed the principles of operant conditioning using the ‘Skinner box’ which he used for research on animals. It allowed him to study animal behaviour in a lab . The animals learnt to perform certain behaviours (like pressing a lever) in response to stimuli. For example, he taught rats to press a lever using food as a reward - positive reinforcement.
Define the assumption ‘internal mental processes’.
Cognitive psychologists see humans as information processors, where essential cognitive processes all work together to enable us to make sense of and respond to the world around us. They help us understand our environment.
Explain the ‘conditioning’ assumption.
Operant conditioning is learning through consequence. Positive reinforcement is providing a reward in order to increase the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant experience to increase likelihood of desired behaviour. Punishment is imposing unpleasant consequences in order to stop/reduce frequency of behaviour.
Explain the ‘internal mental processes’ assumption.
Firstly we pay attention to the sensory stimuli.
Then we search through our memory store to see if there’s a match with something we’ve seen/experienced before.
We then perceive the outcome of what we understand the object to be, based on attention/memory.
We use our knowledge of language to name it.
Give the example for ‘internal mental processes’.
We use our internal mental processes when faced with illusions. When looking at the Rubin’s vase illusion, you would first pay attention to it, then you would search your memory to see if you have seen it before. You will then perceive what you believe the object to be then use language to name it.
Define the assumption ‘schemas’.
Schemas are organised packets of information, made up of past experiences.
Explain the ‘schemas’ assumption.
They are built up through experience and stored in our long-term memory. They are derived from previous experiences/knowledge; they set up expectations about what is probable in a particular social context. Eg, a schema of a dog may be ‘fur, legs, bark’. Our experiences add to our schemas and are refined through social interaction. They help us make sense of the world, creating short cuts to identifying things that we come across because we cannot possibly process everything separately.
Give the example for the ‘schemas’ assumption.
Allport and Postman investigated whether people’s schemas can be influenced by cultural expectations. White ps were shown a picture of a well-dressed black man and poorly dressed white man with a razor. The ps had to describe the picture to the next person and after a few retellings, the black man became the aggressor. This shows that behaviours are influenced by schemas/past experience.
Define the ‘computer analogy’ assumption.
Cognitive psychologists often compare the human mind to that of a computer.
Explain the ‘computer analogy’ assumption.
In basic terms, they compare how we take in information (input), change/store it (process), and then recall it when necessary (output). During the process stage, we actively use the cognitive processes of perception, memory, attention. Therefore the mind is compared with the hardware of a computer and the cognitive processes with a computer’s software.
Give the example for the ‘computer analogy’ assumption.
Eg, the multistore model of memory.
Sensory stimuli ———> sensory memory ———> short term memory ———> long term memory
Attention. Retrieval. Rehearsal.
<——— retrieval.
Input. Processes. Output.
Sensory info. Rehearsal and attention. Retrieval.
Define the assumption ‘acknowledgement of free will’.
Free will is the idea that we respond actively to events around us. Individuals choose their own course of action and have responsibility for their behaviour.
Explain the assumption ‘acknowledgment of free will’.
Positive psychologists state that we behave the way we do because we are active agents in our lives and we have the ability to choose/grow and respond actively to events around us. The positive approach recognises that we have control over our own actions and we are therefore responsible for our emotional well-being. This means happiness is accessible to us all, if we make use of our strengths to achieve and be the best we can be. If we are too deterministic then it can leave us feeling powerless to change. Happiness = acknowledging we have free will.
Give the example for ‘acknowledgment of free will’.
Diener and Seligman conducted a study looking at ties that students had with friends/family; measured by the amount of time they invested in this relationships. They found that students with the strongest ties were happier and there was a negative correlation between levels of happiness and depression. This demonstrates free will as we can choose to spend more time in relationships/activities that will make us happy. Emotional state is within our control.
Define the assumption ‘authenticity of goodness and excellence’.
Positive psychologists argue that our view of psychology is unbalanced and that positive behaviours are just and authentic as negative ones. Goodness and excellence are as authentic as disorders and stress and so deserve equal attention from mental health practitioners.
Explain the assumption ‘authenticity of goodness and excellence’.
Seligman believes that we have innate behaviours which he calls signature strengths which are character strengths that are most essential to who we are. There are 6 virtues within the Values in Action Classification of strengths. Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice temperance and transcendence.
Give an example of the assumption ‘authenticity of goodness and excellence’.
Seligman argues that if each person has a set of core strengths that they apply and incorporate into their everyday life, that the person will experience authentic happiness. People must complete activities/tasks that allow you to use your signature strengths everyday. Create an eg.
Define the assumption ‘focus on the good life’.
Seligman states that there are 3 different desirable lives, the good life, the pleasant lift and the meaningful life.
Example the assumption ‘focus on the good life’.
The pleasant life is happiness coming from pursuing positive emotions and daily satisfaction.
The meaningful life is happiness coming from a deep sense of fulfilment by living for a purpose greater than oneself. We use signature strengths for a greater purpose.
The good life is happiness comes from pursuing activities that positively absorb/engage us, we develop character strengths to enhance our lives.
The good life can be split into 3, positive connection to others, positive individual traits and life regulation qualities (see booklet).
Give the example for the assumption ‘focus on the good life’.
Csikszentmihalyi developed the concept of ‘flow’ - which is a key component of ’the good life’. To achieve ‘flow’ in an activity we need the right balance of challenge and skill. Different activities will lead to a flow state for different people (see booklet).
