Asia - 1947-1967 Flashcards
How was decolonisation in Asia similar to that in Africa from 1947-67?
Like Africa, the years between 1947 and 1967 saw the loss to Britain of most of its colonial possessions in Asia.
How did British attitudes towards its colonies in Asia differ from country to country? Why?
There was a striking contrast in British attitudes towards:
-Burma (now Myanmar) - Britain rapidly abandoned after WW2 - the costs of controlling the colony outstripped its actual or potential value.
-Malaya and Singapore - Britain initially determined to keep control - Malaya’s rubber and tin industry could command international markets and benefit Britain’s international trading position (rubber a big dollar earner).
-The difference all In line with Britain’s post-WW2 dual approach.
How had Britain regained control of Burma by the end of WW2? What was the plan in terms of the steps towards decolonisation in Burma?
-By early 1942, Japan had seized Burma, as well as Hong Kong, Malaya and Singapore - the major European imperial possessions in Southeast Asia. (See ‘Imperialism Challenged’ Deck).
-In Burma, the Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO) had initially supported the Japanese, but switched sides when they realised a British/Allied victory would be more likely to win Burmese independence.
-The AFO was a coalition of Burmese forces - it included the Burmese National Army, led by Burmese nationalist Aung San, founder of the Burmese Independence Army (BIA), as well as the Burmese Communist Party and the People’s Revolutionary Party.
-A combination of British forces, as well as the AFO led to Burma’s liberation from Japanese control in 1944-45.
Steps towards decolonisation:
-By the end of the war, Britain and the allies had regained their territories in Southeast Asia.
-Clement Attlee had originally planned a programme of measured and slow steps to independence, but the breakdown of British order (violence) hastened withdrawal - thus it all happened very quickly, but in this instance it was controlled (Britain happy to cut ties with Burma).
How and why did the plan for Burma change? How did the AFO become the AFPFL? Who became its leader?
Violent resistance combined with a lack of desire to hold onto Burma ultimately hastened British withdrawal, thus changing Attlee’s plan.
AFPFL:
-1945 - the restoration of the British Governor, Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith (believed the physical reconstruction of Burma should precede any political change) turned the AFO into a resistance force against Britain and the re-establishment of British imperial rule.
-The AFO now under the name of the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) - Aung San was its leader.
-Aung San and the AFPFL were at the centre of the violent nationalist resistance in Burma.
How did Britain try to use the strength of support for Aung San in September 1945? How did the steps to independence progress in 1946 and 1947?
Under Aung San, the AFPFL had huge support.
-September 1945 -Lord Mountbatten, Allied Commander in Southeast Asia, recognised this support and incorporated the Burmese National Army into a new army for the country - thereby acknowledging Aung San as a legitimate leader in the post-war politics of Burma.
1946 and 1947:
-September 1946 - mounting civil obedience and the increasing ungovernability of the country prompted the replacement of Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith with the more liberal Sir Hubert Rance.
-Rance not only admitted Aung San onto the ruling Executive Council, but virtually placed him in charge of it.
-By December 1946, Attlee confirmed that the British government were not able, nor willing, to commit sufficient troops to impose British authority in Burma anymore.
-January 1947 - talks took place in London between Aung San and Attlee’s government. It was agreed that elections for a Constituent Assembly (to draw up a constitution) would take place in April 1948.
What was the result of the 1948 Constituent Assembly elections in Burma? Why was Aung San assassinated? When was Burma granted independence?
-The April 1948 elections produced a huge AFPFL majority.
-However, warring factions within the AFPFL couldn’t agree on Burma’s future path.
Assassination:
-6 July 1947 - Aung San and 6 of his ministers were assassinated by a rival political faction - U Saw, the Burmese politician and former PM of Burma (1940-42), was hanged for his role in the assassination of Burma’s national hero.
Independence and circumstances:
-4 January 1948 - Burma granted independence. Governor Hubert Rance present at the flag raising ceremony.
-Because of Aung San’s assassination, the achievement of Burmese independence was not the quiet and measured withdrawal Attlee’s government had envisaged.
-Burma erupted into civil war and rejected the idea of joining the British Commonwealth.
How were Malaya and Singapore regarded differently to Burma by the British? Why?
The British regarded Malaya and Singapore as crucially important to their post-war economic and imperial strategies.
-Malaya - a major producer of rubber (and tin) - promised to be an important earner of dollars after the war.
-Singapore - militarily and strategically important to Britain’s wider interests in Asia - had a major naval and military base on the island.
-Therefore, there was a stark contrast in policy to that applied in Burma which was regarded as no longer useful or valuable enough - post-WW2 dual approach.
What problems did Britain face as they tried to re-establish control in Malaya in 1945? Who were their ethnic tensions between? Why was the Chinese population in Malaya so prominent? What were the reasons for and sources of the ethnic tensions in Malaya?
The Malay Peninsula suffered from ethnic tensions between:
-the Malay peoples - 49.5% population in 1947.
-the Chinese and Indian populations - who had been encouraged to come to the colony by the British - 38.4% population in 1947.
Malayan Chinese:
-Large numbers of Chinese immigrants had arrived in Malaya in the late 19th century, encouraged by the British who needed labour for the rubber plantations and tin mines.
-More Chinese migrants arrived during the Chinese Civil War (1927-50).
-By 1947, the Chinese compromised 38.4% of the population, compared with 49.5% Malays.
-The Chinese population rose to 45% by 1957, before falling again to 36% in 1961.
-Chinese Malayans developed their own communities and schools - they flourished in business and commerce, enjoying one of the highest standards of living among the minority demographic groups in the Malay Peninsula.
Reasons:
-Ethnic divisions were instituted by the British in the 19th century - the British applied social Darwinist ideas to form the view that Malays, Chinese and Indians had different strengths and weaknesses.
-The tensions had further been exacerbated by the Japanese occupiers who had caused great suffering to the Chinese in particular.
Which political parties were active in the Malay Peninsula post-WW2? Who represented the Malay peoples? Who represented the Chinese?
-United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) - created in May 1946 by Onn bin Ja’afar - argued for the rights of the Malay peoples (in response to the Malayan Union). UMNO had initially cooperated with the British to defeat Communists who were attempting to establish control in the area after the war.
-Malay Chinese Association (MCA) - formed in 1949 by Tan Cheng Lock, and the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) - led by Chin Peng - the MCA was actually fiercely anti-communist, but both parties represented the Chinese population in Malaya.
-The Chinese population were also well represented in labour unions - involved in a series of strikes between 1945-48.
What original plan did British administrators adopt for Malaya in 1946? Why did the Malays oppose this?
1946 - a ‘Malay Union’ came into effect under the administration of new Governor, Sir Edward Gent.
-United British possessions on the Malay peninsula (except Singapore).
-Assured equal Malay citizenship for all ethnic groups.
-Reduced the Sultan’s power (with his ‘approval’).
-Also kept Singapore as a separate Crown Colony.
Opposition to the Union from the Malays:
-The easy granting of citizenship to immigrants assured by the Union, combined with the loss of political power for Malay rulers and the Sultan, caused Malays to oppose the creation of the Union.
-UMNO led the opposition to the Union, utilising civil disobedience as a means of protest - Onn Ja’afar organised rallies and amassed sufficient public support to force a British climb-down (ultimately led to the Federation of Malaya being formed).
What changes did the British make to the constitution in response to opposition? What new scheme was produced for the granting of Malay citizenship?
Gent quickly realised that he had to calm Malay fears with ethnic tensions running high - mainly from Ja’afar and UMNO. Amendments to the constitution were made.
-June 1947 - a new scheme was produced, replacing the citizenship proposal (which in the end was never actually implemented) and offering a much more restricted definition of Malay citizenship.
-This new scheme was discriminatory against many of the Chinese population - included proven competence in the Malay and English languages.
How and when was the Malayan Union dissolved? What was it replaced by? What were its features?
The Malayan Union was dissolved when the new arrangements (changes to the constitution) were enacted in January 1948.
-It was replaced by the ‘Federation of Malaya’ on 1 February 1948 - grouped 11 states together.
Features of the Federation of Malaya:
-An Executive Council established - included 7 official and 7 unofficial members, headed by the British High Commissioner.
-A Legislative Council established - included 62 members representing the various states and other groups - became an elected body in 1955 where elections produced 28 ethnic Malays, 14 Chinese, 6 Indians, and 14 Europeans as members.
-Governments within the individuals Malay states to which some of the financial powers of the central colonial administration were devolved.
-The Federation effectively gave semi-autonomous powers to the region - pleased UMNO who now focused on achieving full political independence (Britain had been prepared to cooperate with UMNO because they had offered a positive programme of action (e.g extending primary school).
What problems did the new Federation of Malaya have? How were Chinese grievances exploited by Malayan Communists?
Problems for new Federation of Malaya:
-Post-war economic circumstances.
-Chinese grievances - complicated the path to independence.
Chinese grievances:
-‘Malay nationality’ once again looked set to be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity - the Federation saw new citizenship discrimination in 1949 (just like in 1947).
-Malayan Communists stirred up violence among the Chinese population - disaffected by this discrimination.
-This was done by the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), a communist guerrilla army formed by Chin Peng and the MCP, to fight for national liberation and independence from British colonial rule.
What attacks did the MNLA carry out? What did this lead to in June 1948?
-The MNLA began attacking rubber plantations, mines and police stations.
-They also derailed trains and burned workers’ houses.
June 1948 - frightened by the potential damaging impact of MNLA rebel attacks on rubber plantation (a valuable economic resource - high dollar value), and partly through fear of communism, the British declared a State of Emergency (normal constitutional procedures suspended).
What did the 1948 State of Emergency give British colonial authorities the power to do? Why did Britain call it an emergency and not a war?
The suspension of constitutional procedures empowered colonial authorities to use military force and additional legal powers to arrest suspects and impose order on the country.
-The reason the crisis was called an emergency and not a war was likely to maintain the confidence of insurance companies.
