Africa - 1947-1967 Flashcards
What was Britain’s post-WW2 policy towards Africa? How had WW2 affected the economy’s of African colonies?
-Post-war policy towards Africa was on the development of African colonies so that they could contribute to the post-war economy.
-The Colonial Development Corporation was set up in 1947 to coordinate major projects and extensive development initiatives for agriculture, industry and trade.
-But WW2 had already accelerated economic development and growth in African colonies in response to the needs of the war effort.
-This enabled new nationalist ideas to thrive and spread, particularly among a new urban middle-class (educated African elite).
-The British failed to realise the growth of nationalist movements and were unable to control it - Britain wanted any change to be gradual and managed.
What did Andrew Cohen say about West Africa in 1947?
Cohen Report 1947 - Andrew Cohen, Head of the Africa Department in the Colonial Office in London, described the Gold Coast as the most advanced African colony in terms of the political ‘maturity’ of its people and their ‘fitness’ to rule themselves.
-However, he did not envisage that independence for its people would be feasible for at least a generation.
-He warned that elsewhere, in other parts of West Africa, it would take much longer - despite the emergent African nationalist movements.
What was the Burns Constitution 1946? What did it do? What was the reaction to it in the Gold Coast?
1946 - The Burns Constitution was drawn up in the Gold Coast (Ghana) - named after Sir Alan Burns, Governor-General 1942-47.
-Established a new Legislative Council with 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members.
-Though there were more Africans, the British were still in control, with final power remaining in the hands of the British Governor.
-A wave of unrest spread across the country - protests against British colonial rule gained momentum.
Which key Gold Coast nationalist leader became a key figure in African nationalism? What was his background?
Kwame Nkrumah (1909-72) - typical of many post-war nationalist leaders.
Background:
-Well-educated in a Catholic mission school and a government teacher training college (trained as a teacher).
-Studying in the Gold Coast capital, Accra, Nkrumah was exposed to radical Western ideas - received a western education.
-He continued his studies at Lincoln University in the USA in the 1930’s and 40’s where he became involved in radical Black activism.
What were Nkrumah’s key beliefs? How did these develop?
Nkrumah’s political philosophy encompassed a number of key ideas, from both African nationalists and Euro-American liberal intellectuals:
1) Pan-Africanism - unity of all Africans - a belief that all African people should work together politically for their collective common good.
-1945 - Nkrumah helped organise the 5th Pan-African Congress in Manchester - a series of meetings to discuss decolonisation in African and the West Indies - they agreed to overcome colonialism with African socialism.
-A firm believer in African liberation, in 1963, Nkrumah played a key role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (now African Union) which was dedicated to improving the lives of Africans across the continent.
2) Marxist socialism - a belief in the redistribution of wealth to give the poor control over their own destinies - he believed that Empire served the interests of international capitalists.
-Nkrumah did however make a distinction between his brand of African socialism and Marx’s communism or that of the USSR.
3) Popular nationalism - Nkrumah associated himself with the demand for change - a nationalist figurehead for the people.
4) Responsible leadership - despite his anti-colonial ideas, Nkrumah understood the importance of developing a working relationship with the British to gain their confidence and support.
Which 2 political parties/groups did Nkrumah help set up after WW2?
1947 - on his return to the Gold Coast (with an international reputation), he was invited to become General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGGC) - established by wealthy lawyer J.B. Danquah.
-The UGGC were a political party with the goal of national independence for Ghana.
1949 - formed a new political group, the Convention People’s Party (CPP) - broke away from UGGC.
-The CPP were a socialist political party which pressurised the British administration to make futher concessions.
What positive changes did the CPP manage to achieve after its creation in 1949? What remained unchanged?
CPP pressurised the British administrators to make further concessions:
-The Legislative Council was enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly.
-The number of people who could vote for it increased.
-But still the British Governor retained ultimate power.
Why was Nkrumah arrested in 1948? Why was Nkrumah imprisoned in 1950? What happened between the 2 incidents?
1948 (before the CPP was in existence) - Nkrumah and other leading UGGC members were arrested for orchestrating and encouraging the 1948 Accra riots. The riots in early February 1948 followed a boycott of all European imports in response to their inflated prices, as well as the exploitation of workers in Ghana by British companies (e.g Cadbury’s and Fry’s confectioners).
-They were briefly detained and released a month later.
-Shortly after the 1948 arrest, Nkrumah’s enthusiasm not dampened as he built on his growing popularity and formed the CPP in 1949.
1950 - Nkrumah jailed for leading a disturbing ‘positive action’ campaign in Ghana.
How and why was Nkrumah released from prison? What was the significance of the election victory?
-February 1951 - the CPP won a landslide victory in the Legislative Assembly elections - 2/3 of seats.
-Though in prison, Nkrumah was elected for his Accra constituency.
-Nkrumah released on 12 February 1951 - received with rapturous applause.
-With no other alternative, Arden-Clarke asked him to form a government the following day - the CPP had to be brought into government to bring resistance under control.
What position was Nkrumah given from 1952? What were his priorities as PM? How much control did his government have?
Nkrumah made Prime Minister in 1952.
-As leader of the new government, Nkrumah prioritised unifying the four territories of the Gold Coast.
-Members of the CPP took posts as government ministers.
-Nkrumah’s government given extensive control over internal affairs.
How did Ghana become independent in 1957?
Leading up to independence:
-1956 - a plebiscite in the neighbouring British Mandate of Togoland delivered a 58% vote in favour of unification with the Gold Coast. Togoland integrated with the Gold Coast in December 1956.
-1957 - in response to support for independence, new elections held on full adult suffrage.
Independence:
-The Gold Coast declared its independence, as Ghana, on 6 March 1957 - the first African country (South of the Sahara) to regain independence from colonial rule.
-*Ghana is the name of an ancient African state on the edge of the African Sahara.
When did Ghana become a Republic? What did Nkrumah become?
The Dominion of Ghana became a Republic in 1960 - Nkrumah now President of Ghana (no longer PM).
-Ghana no longer a Dominion.
Why did Nkrumah prove a divisive figure after 1960? How and when did he lose power?
-Nkrumah proved a divisive figure - becoming increasingly authoritarian.
Coup:
-He held power until a military coup in 1966 (backed by the American CIA - likely due to socialist views) deposed him.
-Lived last years of his life in exile in Guinea - died in 1972 of cancer.
What was Nkruma’s impact on Africa?
-Inspired other leaders across Africa - a figurehead throughout the continent.
-He helped coordinate various other African independence movements - he also had a circle of African, Caribbean and Black American intellectuals and politicians around him.
-Formed the Organisation of African Unity in 1963 - which today exists as the African Union (AU).
What was the situation in Nigeria post-WW2? Which nationalist parties aligned with each ethnic group?
Similarly to the Gold Coast, there was momentum for independence in Nigeria.
-However, the situation was more complex due to the regional, ethnic and religious division within the country - Nigeria, in many ways, was an artificial creation made up of diverse peoples and regions.
-Nationalism derived more from pan-Africanism than any sense of common Nigerian nationality.
-The north contained half the population and was largely Muslim - dominated by the Hausa and Fulani.
-The west was dominated by the Yoruba - an economically advanced and ambitious community that sought independence.
-The east was dominated by the Ibo.
-Southern nationalism was more influenced by European ideas, teacher organisations, lawyers, traders and independent Christian churches.
Nationalism:
-Nigeria had had an elected Legislative Council since 1922 - this had stimulated political thinking.
-Also, wartime service by Nigerians in Ethiopia, Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma had reinforced the nationalism of the younger generation.
Nationalist Parties:
-The NCNC - Ibo (east)
-The Action Group - Yoruba (west) - the group represented the comparatively economically advanced region. Led by the formidable debater and campaigner, Obafemi Awolo.
-The Northern People’s Congress - Hausa and Fulani (north) - the group was led by Western-educated northern Muslims, but rivalry among Muslim factions proved problematic. Ahmadu Bello was its most powerful figure - famously known as Sarduana (war leader) of Sokoto. He wanted to protect Nothern social and political institutions from Southern influence.
What was the Richards Constitution 1946? What did it do? How was it still not enough?
1946 - The Richards Constitution - named after Sir Arthur Richards (Governor-General 1943-48) - gave more representation by expanding the Legislative Council (established 1922).
-3 assemblies created - 1 for each of the 3 major regions created (West, East and South) - had to debate local matters and to advise the British governors in these regions.
-However, the Governor-General still retained ultimate power.
Why did a new Constitution emerge in 1951? What did the Macpherson Constitution do? What were the positive and negative effects?
-After pressure from nationalist movements, the British were forced to amend the 1946 constitution.
1951 - The Macpherson Constitution - named after Sir John Macpherson, the Governor-General (1948-55):
-Extended the right to vote.
-Created a National Council of Ministers - answerable to a 135-seat House of Representatives (federal). This stimulated the growth of Nigerian political parties which began to compete in elections to the new House - enabled Nigerian officials to participate in government for the first time.
-Each region allowed its own government and elected assembly. The Federal House of Representatives could not overrule these regional governments.
Negative effects:
-Nationalist leaders were dismayed by the fact that, as Governor-General, Macpherson still had the power to veto any decisions.
-Exacerbated tensions between different ethnic groups - the new political parties established represented different ethnic groups/religions/languages and were expected to compete.
-This left British Colonial Secretary, Oliver Littleton, to approve a new constitution in 1954 allowing for greater regional autonomy.
How were more concessions granted to Nigeria in 1954?
Following federal elections, a government was formed with 3 British officials and 9 regional ministers drawn from regional parties.
-Looked to strike a balance at a national level between regions.
-Concessions were being rapidly granted, more quickly than the British originally envisaged for Nigeria.
How and when did Nigeria gain independence?
-Power was increasingly devolved to the various regional governments.
-This devolution eventually led to independence.
Independence:
-Following federal elections in 1959, Nigeria gained full independence in October 1960 as the Federation of Nigeria (now a Dominion) - Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe was appointed the honorary post of Governor-General by Queen Elizabeth II.
Who was Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe? What was his background?
A key nationalist figure in Nigeria.
Background:
-Received a Western education in Nigeria, followed by further study in the USA where he was exposed to radical ideas - just like Nkrumah.
-He developed a strong sense of African nationalism and worked as a journalist, firstly in the Gold Coast, and in Lagos from 1937.
-Owned a string of newspapers through which he could argue the nationalist cause.
How did Azikiwe emerge as a champion of Nigerian nationalism in the 1940’s? What did the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons do? How and why was the nationalist movement in Nigeria so divided?
1944 - created and became the leader of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
NCNC - founded 1944:
-One of the several major nationalist independence parties in Nigeria that emerged in the post-war period.
-Dominated by the Igbo/Ibo (east) under the commanding personality of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe.
-The party had the widest appeal compared to the Action Group and the Northern People’s Congress (NPC).
-Due to the division in Nigeria, the task of developing a nationalist movement was made harder as several different nationalist political groups emerged.
-The NCNC dominated by the Ibo (east), as well as the ‘Yoruba Action Group’ (west) and the Northern People’s Congress - NPC (Muslim north) - loads of different perspectives Nigerian politics.
What solution was required to create an independent Nigeria? What did this mean for Azikiwe?
A federal solution was needed to create a viable and stable state of Nigeria.
-Azikiwe (who was born to Ibo parents) needed to be able to work with his nationalist rivals (‘Yoruba Action Group’ and the NPC), as well as the British.
-It took all of his bargaining skills to prevent civil war.
How did Azikiwe secure independence for Nigeria in 1960? When did Nigeria become a republic?
Britain granted Nigeria independence in October 1960.
-It was his ability to compromise and win the trust of the British, and the various nationalist communities, which facilitated a peaceful independence.
-He negotiated a deal with the NPC, in coalition with the NCNC, which allowed him to establish Nigeria’s first government - with himself as President in 1963 when Nigeria became a Republic (no longer a Dominion).
What was the impact of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe on imperialism more broadly?
-Proved that British imperial rule was not essential to avoid ethnic conflict and civil war.
-Showed it was possible for the various regional ethnic groups to work successfully within a federal system - worked with the British and nationalist rivals to create a federal system.
-However, Nigeria was haunted by division hidden by the ‘peaceful’ federal solution.
What 2 other countries in West Africa gained independence in the 1960’s?
-Sierra Leone - given independence in 1961.
-Gambia - given independence in 1965.
-There were similar tensions in these two countries, hence why the British concluded that independence was the best option.
Who was Sir Milton Margai? How did he help Sierra Leone achieve independence?
Sir Milton Margai:
-Margai was born in Sierra Leone but went to medical school in England.
-He returned to Sierra Leone with his medical degree in 1928.
Key involvement:
-In 1951, Margai founded the nationalist party the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP).
-Also in 1951, Margai oversaw a new constitution which provided a framework for decolonisation.
-In 1953, local ministerial responsibility was introduced, with Margai as Chief Minister.
-The SLPP won Legislative Council elections in 1957.
Independence:
-1960 - Margai led the Sierra Leonean delegation at talks in London.
-1961 - Sierra Leone gained independence from Britain.
-1962 - Margai was elected as Sierra Leone’s first Prime Minister by a landslide - his premiership was defined as a period of prosperity and social harmony.
Who was Dawda Jawara? How did he help Gambia achieve independence?
Dawda Jawara:
-Jawara was born in Gambia.
-He won a scholarship to study veterinary medicine at Glasgow University. Whilst at Glasgow, Jawara’s interest in politics began - immersed himself in the Labour Party’s socialist politics and ideology.
-He also went to the University of Edinburgh for a further diploma.
Key involvement:
-A few years after Jawara’s return to Gambia, the People’s Progressive Party was founded in 1959. Jawara quickly emerged as the leader of the party.
-In 1962, general elections saw Jawara become Prime Minister.
Independence:
-1965 - Gambia became independent.
-Jawara continued as Prime Minister until 1970, and then as the first President of Gambia from 1970 to 1994, when he was deposed.
How did East Africa present a challenge for Britain in the post-war era?
Progress towards independence was much more violent in parts of East Africa.
Difficulties:
-Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness, political activism, nationalism and labour disputes.
-During the war, the population of Nairobi (in Kenya) increased by half, and the populations of Dar-es-Salaam (in Tanganyika/Tanzania) and Mombasa (in Kenya) both doubled.
-Population growth and urbanisation brought high inflation, poor housing and overcrowding fuelled protests.
-White settler colonial communities were also more common in these areas - they were responsible for decades of displacement and economic exploitation - the settlers vociferously opposed any kind of decolonisation that did not guarantee their continued dominance.
How did the British originally see East Africa in terms of their post-war dual strategy? How did their attempts turn out?
In line with the post-WW2 dual approach, East Africa were initially seen as ideal for economic development - as a result, Britain were (at first) keen to hold onto East Africa in order to generate large dollar-earning exports.
-However, attempts by the British to develop the area were pretty disastrous.
What ambitious project emerged in Tanganyika in 1946? What was the idea?
The Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme of 1946 - an ambitious development project started by the British Labour government.
-The idea was to grow groundnuts (peanuts) on a large scale in the mandated territory of Tanganyika to increase the production of edible cooking oil for the British market and world economy.
-In 1946, there were severe shortages in cooking fats in Britain - groundnuts used to make oil.
-The building of infrastructure to make the peanut cultivation would also provide work for thousands of Africans.
What did the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme 1946 involve? How was it carried out and why did it go wrong?
The project involved massive investment in infrastructure - tractors, specialist equipment and the construction of a railway to transport the crop.
Execution and planning:
-The planners totally disregarded the climatic conditions and the peculiarities of the region - lions, rhinos, crocodiles, scorpions and bees nests were all major problems.
-The terrain proved too difficult to cultivate.
-The specially imported agricultural machines and means of transport broke down en masse.
