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Biology > AS 2.4 Adaptions for nutrition > Flashcards

AS 2.4 Adaptions for nutrition Flashcards

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1
Q

What is autotrophic nutrition?

A

organism that synthesises their own complex organic molecules from simpler molecules using either light or chemical energy

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2
Q

What are the two types of autotrophic nutrition?

A

Photoautotrophic and chemoautotrophic

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3
Q

What are photoautotrophic organisms?

A

Photoautotrophic organisms use light as their energy source and perform photosynthesis

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4
Q

What are chemoautotrophic organisms?

A

Chemoautotrophic organisms use the energy from chemical reactions. These organisms are mostly prokaryotes

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5
Q

What is heterotrophic nutrition?

A

organisms that obtains complex organic molecules by consuming other organisms

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6
Q

What are the three types of heterotrophic nutrion?

A
  • Saprotrophic nutriton
  • Parasitic nutrion
  • Holozoic nutrition
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7
Q

What are saprotrophs?

A

Saprotrophs are organisms that derive energy and raw materials for growth from the extracellular digestion of dead or decaying material

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8
Q

How do saprotrophs obtain their nutrients?

A

They have no specialised digestive system, they secrete enzymes onto food outside the body for extracellular digestion. They absorb the soluble products of digestion across their cell membranes by diffusion and active transport

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9
Q

What is parasitic nutrition?

A

obtaining nutrition from another living organism, the host

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10
Q

What is holozoic nutrition?

A

Holozoic nutrition is used by most animals. They ingest food, digest it and egest the indigestible remains

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11
Q

What organisms have holozoic nutrition?

A

Herbivores - only eat plants
Carnivores - only eat other animals
Omnivores - earth both plants and animals
Detritivores - feed on dead and decaying material

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12
Q

What digestive system do organisms with holozoic nutrition have?

A

A specialised digestive system

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13
Q

Give an example of a unicellular organism that uses holozoic nutrition

A

Amoeba

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14
Q

How is the structure of amoeba adapted to holozoic nutrition?

A

They have a large surface are to volume ratio

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15
Q

What types of transport do amoeba use to obtain their nutrients?

A

Obtain nutrients by diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport across the cell membrane

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16
Q

How do amoeba’s take in their food?

A
  1. Take in molecules by endocytosis, into vacuoles, which fuse with lysosomes.
  2. The contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes.
  3. The products are absorbed into the cytoplasm
  4. Indigestible material are egested by exocytosis
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17
Q

Give an example of a multicellular organism

A

Hydra

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18
Q

In humans, why do food have to be digested?

A
  • Molecules are Insoluble and too big to cross membranes and get absorbed into the blood
  • Polymers must be converted to their monomers so they can be rebuilt into molecules needed by cells
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19
Q

What is the structure of the humans gut?

A

It is a long, hollow, muscular tube

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20
Q

Where does digestion occur in humans?

A

The gut

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21
Q

What features does the gut have that helps humans digest their food?

A
  • It allows the movement of food in one direction only
  • Each section is specialized and preforms steps in the process of mechanical and chemical digestion, and absorption
  • Food is moved along the gut by peristalsis
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22
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

rhythmic wave of coordinated muscular contractions in the circle and longitudinal muscle of the gut wall, passing food along the gut in only one direction

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23
Q

How does the gut ensure food moves in only one direction

A

The gut moves food along by peristalsis, which are rhythmic waves of coordinated muscular contractions in the circle and longitudinal muscle of the gut wall, passing food along the gut in only one direction

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24
Q

What are the functions of the gut?

A
  • Ingestion
  • Digestion
  • Absorption
  • Egestion
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25
Q

What is ingestion?

A

Taking food into the body through the mouth

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26
Q

What is digestion?

A

The breakdown of large insoluble molecules into soluble molecules that are small enough to be absorbed into the blood

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27
Q

What are the two types of digestion?

A

Mechanical and chemical digestion

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28
Q

How is mechanical digestion preformed in a human and why is it important?

A

cutting and crushing by teeth and muscle contractions of the gut wall to increase the surface area for enzymes to act on

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29
Q

How is chemical digestion preformed in a human?

A

Humans have digestive enzymes, bile and stomach acid to help the breakdown of food

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30
Q

What is absorption in the humans gut?

A

the passage of molecules and ions through the gut wall into the blood

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31
Q

What is egestion in the humans digestive system?

A

elimination of waste not made by the body, including food that cant be digested (cellulose)

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32
Q

What are the functions of the humans mouth?

A

Ingestion, and digestion of starch and glycogen

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33
Q

What is the function of the eosophagus in the humans digestive system?

A

To carry food into the stomach

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34
Q

What is the function of the stomach in the humans digestive system?

A

Digestion of protein

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35
Q

What is the function of the duodenum in the humans digestive system?

A

Digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins

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36
Q

What is the function of the ileum in the humans digestive system?

A
  • digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins

- absorption of digestive food and water

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37
Q

What is the function of the colon in the humans digestive system?

A

Absorption of water

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38
Q

What is the function of the rectum in the humans digestive system?

A

Storage of faeces

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39
Q

What is the function of the anus in the humans digestive system?

A

Egestion

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40
Q

What many layers of tissue surround the lumen in the gut wall?

A

4

41
Q

What is the outermost layer of the gut wall and what does it do?

A

The serosa. It is made of tough connective tissue to it protects the gut wall and it also reduces friction with other abdominal organs

42
Q

What is the second outermost last of the gut wall and what does it do?

A

The muscle and it compromises 2 layers, the inner circular muscles and the outer longitudinal muscles. It coordinates waves of contractions (peristalsis)

43
Q

How does the muscle layer of the gut wall preform peristalsis?

A

Behind the ball of food, circular muscles contract and longitudinal muscles relax, pushing the food along

44
Q

What is the second innermost layer of the gut wall and what does it do?

A

It is connective tissue. It contains blood and lymph vessels which remove products of digestion, and nerves that coordinate peristalsis

45
Q

What is the innermost layer of the gut wall and what does it do?

A

The mucosa and it lines the gut wall. Its epithelium secrete mucus, lubricating and protecting the mucosa as in some regions, digestive juices are secreted

46
Q

What are the four specialised regions in the mammalian gut?

A
  • Buccal cavity
  • Stomach
  • Small intestine
  • Large intestine
47
Q

How is the buccal cavity a specialized region in the mammalian gut?

A
  • Mechanical digestion where food is mixed with saliva and chewed by teeth
  • This increases the surface area of the food, giving enzymes more access
  • The saliva contains, amylase (digests starch and glycogen into maltose), hydrogen carbonate and carbonate ions, and mucus to lubricate the foods passage down the oesophagus
48
Q

How is the stomach a specialized region in the mammalian gut?

A
  • Food enters the stomach and is kept there by the contractions of two sphincters (ring of muscles)
  • Stomach walls contract rhythmically to mix the food with the gastric juice secreted by the glands in the stomach wall
  • The gastric juice is secreted from glands in the mucosa, called gastric pits
  • Gastric juice contains pepsin, which hydrolyses proteins into polypeptides. Hydrochloric acid lowers the pH to meet the enzymes optimum pH and to kill bacteria in the food. Mucus secreted by goblet cells, it lines the stomach wall protecting it from the enzymes
49
Q

When food enters the stomach, how is it kept there?

A

By the contractions of two sphincters which are a ring of muscles

50
Q

Where is gastric juice secreted?

A

Glands in the mucosa of the stomach wall, called gastric pits

51
Q

What does gastric juice contain and what do the components do?

A
  • Pepsin that hydrolyses proteins into polypeptides
  • Hydrochloric acid which lowers the pH to meet the enzymes optimum and to kill bacteria in the food
  • Mucus which is secreted by goblet cells and lines the stomach wall protecting it from enzymes and to lubricate the food
52
Q

What are the 2 regions of the small intestine?

A

Duodenum and ileum

53
Q

How does the digested food move from the stomach to the duodenum?

A

The sphincter muscle at the base of the stomach relaxes, releasing food to the duodenum little at a time

54
Q

Where does the duodenum receive secretions from?

A

The liver and the pancreas

55
Q

Where is bile made, stored, and pass to?

A

Bile is made in the liver, stored in the gallbladder and passes through the bile duct to the duodenum

56
Q

What does bile contain and what do the components do?

A

Bile has no enzymes, it only contains bile salts. They emulsify lipids in the food, increasing surface area which makes the digestion by lipase more efficient

57
Q

What does bile do?

A
  • Bile contains bile salts which emulsify lipids in the food, increasing surface area which makes the digestion by lipase more efficient
  • Bile is alkaline and neutralises the acid in food coming from the stomach. It also provides a suitable pH for the enzymes in the small intestine
58
Q

Where is pancreatic juice secreted from, and where does it go to?

A

From glands in the pancreas, it enters the duodenum through the pancreatic duct

59
Q

What does pancreatic juice contain and what do the components do?

A

Pancreatic juice contains amylase, lipase, proteases, and trypsin. It also contains NaHCO3 (sodium hydrogen carbonate), it makes the pH more alkaline neutralise acid from the stomach and providing optimum pH for the enzymes i the juice to work efficiently

60
Q

What do the epithelial cells lining the ileum have and what do they do?

A

Epithelial cells lining the ileum have villi which synthesise digestive enzymes such as peptidases and
Carbohydrases

61
Q

What does the enzyme carbohydrase do?

A

Carbohydrases digest the disaccharides into monosaccharides

62
Q

Where does absorption mainly occur at and and what type of transport is it?

A

Occurs mainly in the small intestine, by diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport

63
Q

Why do the epithelial cells in the small intestine have lots of mitochondria?

A

Activate transport in absorption requires ATP

64
Q

How is the ileum in the small intestine adapted for absorption?

A
  • Lining is folded
  • On the folds are villi have their epithelial cells have microvilli
  • Villi and microvilli produce a large surface area for absorption
65
Q

How are amino acids absorbed in the gut?

A

Amino acids are absorbed into the epithelial cells by active transport, then they pass into the capillaries by facilitated diffusion
and dissolve in the plasma

66
Q

How are glucose absorbed in the gut?

A
  • Glucose passes into epithelial cells with sodium ions by cotransport
  • Glucose moves into the capillaries by facilitated diffusion
  • Sodium ions move into capillaries by active transport
67
Q

How are fatty acids and glycerol molecules absorbed in the gut?

A
  • Fatty acids and glycerol molecules diffuse into the epithelial cells and into the lacteals
68
Q

What are lacteals?

A

Lacteals are lymph capillaries in the villi and they are part of the lymphatic system which transports fat soluble molecules

69
Q

How are minerals absorbed in the gut?

A

Minerals are taken into the blood by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport and then dissolve in the plasma

70
Q

How are vitamins B and C absorbed in the gut?

A

Vitamins B and C are water soluble so they are absorbed into the blood

71
Q

How are vitamins A D and E absorbed in the gut?

A

Vitamins A D and E are fat soluble so they are absorbed into the lacteals

72
Q

How is water absorbed in the gut?

A

Water is absorbed into the epithelial cells and then into the capillaries by osmosis

73
Q

Where do lipids go to after they are absorbed?

A

Lipids are used in membranes and to make some hormones, but excess is stored

74
Q

Which vein are molecules except for lipids go through to reach the liver?

A

The hepatic portal vein

75
Q

Where does glucose go after it is absorbed?

A

Glucose is taken into body cells and respired for energy or stored as glycogen. Excess is stored as fat

76
Q

Where do amino acids go after being absorbed?

A

Amino acids are taken into body cells for protein synthesis. Excess cannot be stored so the liver deaminates the amino acids and converts the NH2 group to urea, which is carried in the blood and excreted at the kidney. Remains of the amino acid molecules are converted into carbohydrates for storage or fat

77
Q

What does the large intestine consist of?

A
  • Caecum
  • Appendix
  • Colon
  • Rectum
78
Q

Where is villi found in the large intestine and how does it compare to the villi in the ileum?

A
  • Villi is found on the colon wall, but in less amounts than in the ileum
  • The vili have a big role in water absorption
79
Q

What is present in the colon?

A
  • villi

- mutualistic bacteria that is responsible for the production of vitamin K and folic acid

80
Q

What are the mutual bacteria in the colon responsible for?

A

The production of vitamin K and folic acid

81
Q

What happens when material passes along the colon?

A

As material passes along the colon, water is absorbed and by the time it reaches the rectum, it is a semi-solid materials and gets egested as faeces

82
Q

What specialised adaptions do carnivores have for their diet?

A
  • Short small intestine because protein is easily digested
  • Teeth have been adapted for catching and killing prey, as well as crushing bones and tearing meat
  • Sharp incisors grip and tea muscle from bone
  • Canine teeth are large, curve and pointed for piercing prey
  • Cheek teeth called carnassials on each side, these shear the muscle off the bone
  • Lower jaw moves vertically, not horizontally as that could dislocate their jaw
  • Jaw muscles are well developed and powerful, enabling them to crush bones
83
Q

What specialised adaptions for herbivores have?

A
  • Long small intestine because plant material is not readily digested so a long gut allows enough time for digestions and absorption of nutrients
  • Plant cell walls are tough to eat as they contain cellulose and lignin
  • Incisors and canines are on lower jaw only
  • Gap called diastema separates the front teeth from the premolars
  • Molars interlock, lower jaw moves side to side producing a grinding action on a horizontal plane
84
Q

What specialised adaptions do omnivores have?

A
  • Incisors
  • Canines
  • Premolars
  • Molars
85
Q

What are ruminants?

A

Group of herbivores such as cows and sheep

86
Q

What diet do ruminants have?

A

Cellulose-rich diet

87
Q

Why can’t animals digest cellulose themselves?

A

Animals don’t make cellulase and cannot digest the beta glycosidic bonds in cellulose

88
Q

How do animals digest cellulose if they don’t make cellulase?

A

They rely on mutualistic microbes living in their gut to secrete cellulase instead

89
Q

How do ruminants digest their food?

A
  1. Grass is cut by the teeth and mixed with saliva to form the cud, which is swallowed down by the oesophagus to the rumen
  2. The rumen is the chamber where food mixes with the microbes. Microbes secrete enzymes that digest cellulose into glucose.
  3. Glucose is anaerobically respire producing organic acids that are absorbed into the blood and are used as an energy source for the cow. The waste products of the anaerobic respiration are carbon dioxide and methane with are released
  4. Remaining grass passes to the reticulum and is reformed into cud which is regurgitated into the mouth for further chewing
  5. Cud is swallowed and regurgitated to the mouth several times
  6. Cud passes into the omasum where water and organic acids are absorbed into the blood
  7. Material passes to the abomasum (true stomach) where protein is digested by pepsin at a low pH (kills the bacteria and is optimum pH for pepsin)
  8. Digested food passes to the small intestine where products of digestion are absorbed into the blood
  9. Water is absorbed in the large intestine (similar to humans)
90
Q

What is a parasite?

A

Organism that obtains nutrients from another living organism or host, to which it causes harm

91
Q

What is an example of a gut endoparasite?

A

Pork tapeworm

92
Q

Why does the pork tapeworm have no competition?

A

Because it is an endoparasite, it cannot be predated on

93
Q

What adaptions does the park tapeworm have to overcome the harsh environment inside the humans digestive system?

A
  • Suckers and hooks to attach to the gut wall
  • Thin and large surface area to volume ratio to maximize absorption of the digested food
  • Produces enzyme inhibitors to prevent the digestion by host enzymes
  • Thick cuticle which protects it from the host’s immune system
  • Has male and female reproductive structures so it can reproduce without another tapeworm
  • Produces many eggs so it increases the chance of finding another host and the eggs have resistant shells
94
Q

How does the pork tapeworm obtain nutrients?

A
  • They do not have a digestive system

- It absorbs the products of the hosts digestion directly though its cuticle

95
Q

What is an example of an ectoparasite?

A

Pediculus

96
Q

How does pediculus feed?

A

They feed by sucking blood from the scalp of the host

97
Q

How do pediculus’ pass on to a new host?

A

They can only pass to a new host via direct contact as they cannot fly and their legs are poorly adapted to jumping

98
Q

What adaptions does the pediculus have?

A
  • Legs are adapted to grip onto hairs

- Lay eggs that are glued to the base of hairs

Biology (9 decks)

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