Article: Trapped in permanent neutrality: looking behind the symbolic production of the Turkmen nation Flashcards
Turkmenistan since independence:
1991: Turkmenistan’s independence not leading to any fundamental changes in its political structure.
- Saparmurat Niyazov already controlled the policy of Turkmenistan as first secretary of the Communist Party during the last five years of Soviet rule.
- transitional phase (elected president of the Soviet Republic of Turkmenistan, 1990) later president of independent Turkmenistan, 1992.
- During the last years of the Soviet Union, his authoritarian regime did not allow the development of opposing political movements. After Turkmenistan’s independence, his control over these movements, as well as the independent media, increased.
- no active opposition even now: Oppositional groups can be found in Russia and Sweden among former members of the Turkmen government.
- Attempted assassination of the president in 2002 led to a renewed wave of political suppression and the increasing isolation of the country.
- Since 1993, Saparmurat Niyazov calls himself Saparmurat Turkmenbashi (‘father of the Turkmen’) and had himself declared ‘president for life’ in 1999. During his reign - development of a ‘personality cult’. The glorification of the president as ‘Turkmenbashi the Great’ (in mass media, monuments, festivities) even viewing the president as a prophet.
- focus on the official nationalism personified in the figure of Turkmen President Saparmurat Niyazov.
- the cultural aspects of his current nation building policies
- The cultural production of the Turkmen nation counts among the main concerns of the government since nation building is not a natural process
Turkmenistan’s foreign policy:
- officially characterized by the striving for peace through a strategy of ‘positive neutrality’.
- In practice: the preference of bilateral relations X multilateral engagement and an increasing isolation of the country.
- World community’s interests the stability of the region. Because of economic interests in the rich gas resources within Turkmenistan.
- The autocratic government of ‘permanently neutral Turkmenistan’ may provide such stability.
- The rich gas deposits enable the Turkmen government to do without the collection of taxes and, and offer energy and water free of charge
→ uneven relation between the state and society & lack of a Civil Society.
Turkmenistan is a country with no independent media.
All television stations and journals are state-owned and are under the surveillance of the Ministry of Culture and Information
→ All information transmitted through these channels corresponds with the official national image.
Invention of traditions & symbolic production of the Turkmen nation
Since independence celebrated ‘national revival’ and the new beginning of a ‘Turkmen Golden Century’
- The invention and establishment of new national traditions in all countries of Central Asia finds its roots in the respective nationalities’ policies under Stalin in the 1930s.
- CA Rejecting Soviet ideals and denying their Soviet past, BUT employing the same methods in establishing national symbols and traditions. Mostly diverge in the content of the policies.
- Policies have been adapted from a socialistic milieu and reshaped into a purely nationalistic subject.
- Process of ‘cultural objectification’ in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (at every stage of nation building certain themes and objects are emphasized and established as items of national importance).
Turkmenistan’s creation of official national identity -The glorious Turkmen past, Turkmen material values and the vision of a coming Golden Century - can be understood through e.g. publications media, monuments and museums: help form a specific national memory, transmit national values and invented traditions.
- Government publications (media)
- television stations: Watan (Homeland) and Altyn Asyr (Golden Century)
- three newspapers,
- governmental publications on Turkmen traditions, values and history a lot published since independence.
- Government active (esp. in Ashgabat) in building new monuments and museums.
Ruhnama
- ‘spiritual guideline’, of the President, first in 2001.
- Serves to justify the great history of the ancient Turkmen nation as well as to emphasize Turkmen values, material culture and epics like Oguz Han and Go ̈rogly.
- Emphasis on the unity of the Turkmen tribes and the uniqueness of Turkmen material values such as the Turkmen horse, carpet and dog.
- The main argument lies in the orientation of the Turkmen towards a Golden Century. Ruhnama is represented as the necessary guideline to reach this goal.
- Part of national performance & daily life of schoolchildren, students and government officials
- The instruction in the moral code of Ruhnama starts in kindergarten (books with materials from Ruhnama recommended for educational purposes). School kids have to know Ruhnama by heart, the admission to university, and the recognition of foreign diploma is connected with the knowledge of Ruhnama.
- Most of the publications are issued in at least three languages: Turkmen, Russian and English. → they represent the official image of the Turkmen nation also to a foreign audience. (translated into many foreign languages)
- 2004 I. Niyazov published a second volume of Ruhnama (guidelines of ethical behaviour for the Turkmen)
- Quotations of Ruhnama are found all over the country as guidelines of moral behaviour. Ruhnama is honoured as the most holy book after the Koran and is supposed to be on display in every mosque in Turkmenistan.
Monuments
since independence redesigned Ashgabat: new buildings for government purposes, memorials and memorial parks
→ to mark the beginning of a new era.
Memorials: Represent the collective memory of a community, and serve as:
- places to visualize political power,
- instruments for the symbolic production of the Turkmen nation
- and to legitimize current developments.
1998: opening of The Earthquake Memorial Park included the Earthquake Memorial and the Arch of Neutrality
1999: construction of the Independence Park 2001: the park of the Golden Century— Altyn Asyr Park,
the Memorial Park under the Name of Atamurat Niyazov, the Hero of Turkmenistan
2003: opening of Ruhnama Park.
later (Turkmen Disneyland) where ‘the republic’s fauna and the personnages of the Turkmen old fairytales should be displayed’ (included Turkmen State Puppet Theatre)
→ aim at the new generation of the Golden Age, ( those indoctrinated into the Turkmen nationalistic ideology since kindergarten)
- The Earthquake Memorial and the Memorial Park under the name of Atamurat Niyazov, the Hero of Turkmenistan are dedicated to the parents of the President and stand respectively for the tragic losses of the Turkmen nation during the Second World War and in an earthquake in 1948. Replacing the memorial complex from Soviet times, using the same form but shifting the content from socialistic to nationalistic.
- The Arch of Neutrality symbolizes the beginning of a new era as an independent and neutral state after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. President Saparmurat Niyazov—is shown as a golden statue on top of the building, revolving with open arms above the capital.
- The implementation of the new national, or presidential, ideals is symbolized in Independence Park and Altyn Asyr Park. The realization of the Architecture of Golden Age. Following the example of the outer transformation, Niyazov’s national ideology demands an internal transformation of society towards an ideal future.
Museums or presentation in museums:
National Museum of Wildlife & open air Desert Museum including an ethnographic display of nomadic life in the Karakum Desert.
In Asghabat:
National Museum of Wildlife;
The National Museum under the Name of Saparmurat Turkmenbashi the Great & Museum of National Values, combine futuristic and heavily symbolic architecture with a display of recent and ancient ‘Turkmen’ history. The symbolism of the buildings is expressed through numbers. The height of the independence building symbolizes the date of independence. The frequent use of the number five in the architecture of the National Museum can be interpreted as an illustration of the unity of the five Turkmen tribes. This tribal unity is officially declared by the government and is also symbolized in the state flag and the presidential standard. The reduction of Turkmen tribes to just five in the official ideology shows the constructed character of the nation. Proclaimed unity does not always result in an egalitarian access to power.
The exhibition on national Turkmen history encompasses archaeological findings that go back to early Neolithic settlements in the territory of Turkmenistan. The rich prehistoric cultures of the region as national heritage, Turkmen culture is declared to be one of the main cradles of civilization.
The rise of the Turkmen Golden Century
National ideology: Turkmen history is characterized by several phases of development, associated with outstanding leaders. Historic personalities like Seljuk rulers, epic figures, and well-known poets are national leaders of the ancient Turkmen nation. The beginning of the national development is characterized as a ‘Golden Century’ under the leadership of the epic figure, Oguz Han.
After independence, Turkmen culture is described as a development from one Golden Century under the leadership of Oguz Han to another Golden Century, which starts under the leadership of Saparmurat Turkmenbashi the Great in the 21st century.
The 5th Golden Age of the National Tu ̈rkmen spirit starts on 27 October 1991. Allah decreed fate for the nation. The Tu ̈rkmen spirit rises at the beginning of each millennium. This was the same for the beginning of the third millennium. Allah granted the return of historical creative inspiration to the Tu ̈rkmen.
In his writings and the newly arranged exhibitions Saparmurat Niyazov represents himself as the direct heir of famous ‘Turkmen’ leaders like the Seljuk warrior, Seljuk Han (ca. 1000 AD), the mystic, Oguz Han or the poet, Magtymguly (1700 century).
XXI Asyr—Tu ̈rkmeninˇ Altyn Asyry (the 21st century is the Golden Century for the Turkmen) describes the main goal of the present development programme of the government. In the ‘strategy of political, economic and cultural development of Turkmenistan until 2020’ the cultural sector played a key role.
The beginning of a new (golden) century has been accentuated by the introduction of a new calendar through presidential decree. The renaming of the months and days marks a clear break with the Soviet past. National heroes of the golden past like Oguz Han and Alp Arslan as well as important events of the new Turkmen nation such as independence, the declaration of permanent neutrality and the first publication of Ruhnama replace the traditional names of the months.
Symbols of the external realization of the Golden Century can be found in Ashgabat in the design of Independence Park. Rose bushes and water fountains create the impression of a small paradise in the middle of the desert. The golden statue of the president and the presidential standard indicate the claim to power in the current Golden Century, while the statues of Oguz Han, Seljuk Bey and other historical personalities stand for the glorious past of the Turkmen nation. This park displays the potential wealth of the Turkmen nation and serves as a model for the Golden Century.
BUT—the Turkmen people have not yet fully reached the Golden Century. According to Niyazov, the first step of external change should be followed by an inner change towards a new moral, civilized, noble and humble behaviour. effects on the maintanance of the political power
Rituals of transition in Turkmenistan:
- The liminal (välitila) phase of a ritual, is comparable to the present political situation in Turkmenistan.
- between the past, as a Soviet Socialist Republic, and the predicted Golden Age of a reborn, independent nation.
- In this state of liminality, the ‘teacher’ who maintains absolute authority plays a special ‘guiding’ role. In Turkmenistan Saparmurat Turkmenbashi (as he calls himself ‘father of the Turkmen’) fulfills the role, demanding absolute subordination from his ‘pupils’ and promising them the future as a ‘Golden Century’ if they obey his instructions. Instead of preparing the nation for the post-liminal phase of incorporation, Niyazov focuses on gaining and holding personal power. The maintenance of the status quo of liminality affords the ‘teacher’ Niyazov the legitimization of an absolute authority with a religious character.
- The sacra of the Turkmen nation are taught through Ruhnama and the dissemination of national myths linking Turkmenistan to its former ‘Turkmen’ past as visualized in the museums and monuments of the capital, Ashgabat
- The use of a suitable myth in politics is very important for the acceptance and maintenance of political power. The myth of a Golden Century has been frequently used in national production and stands for the ‘ideal society’ or an advanced cultural development. It connects the present with a past that is considered as exemplary by the ruler.
- In Turkmenistan, the myth of the Golden Century is used to legitimize the adherence to a liminal state ‘on the way to a Golden Century’, which gives the ruler more power and constructs a kind of ‘state of emergency’. This ‘state of emergency’ serves as a technique of government to suppress public opinion and prevent a possibly democratic development of the country. The personal rule of the ‘wise leader’ S. Niyazov is justified as long as this ‘state of emergency’ lasts.
Permanent neutrality
The official Turkmen policy of ‘neutrality’ = the seclusion of a society that is linked to the described state of ritual liminality.
The official recognition of the permanent neutral status through the UN in 1995 is celebrated as the second-most important state holiday in Turkmenistan on the 12 December in the month of Neutrality. Documents about the proclamation of neutrality are exhibited in the National Museum and are included in almost every publication on Turkmenistan. The Arch of Neutrality, at the centre of Ashgabat near presidential palace, symbolizes the beginning of the new era of neutrality under the leadership of S. Niyazov. The uniqueness of Turkmenistan’s status as ‘permanently neutral’ is as much emphasized as the wisdom of the national leader who introduced this policy.
The policy of permanent neutrality is further legitimated through the use of historical argumentation. A publication of the State Institute of Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of Turkmenistan, Central Asia and the Orient in Ashgabat emphasizes the idea of neutrality as a very old dream of the Turkmen people from the Seljuk reign of Central Asia in the 10th century.
→ the current policy of neutrality is seen as the logical continuation of a ‘national tradition’.
Historical conditionality of neutral model choice:
neutrality, its main characteristics—peaceableness, tolerance, respect to foreign views and opinions, openness to the world—correspond to the national thinking and peculiarities of historical development of the Turkmen nation. The implementation of the policy of permanent neutrality after independence is understood as an expression of true Turkmen traditions. Niyazov rejects any other imitation of foreign policy, meaning more or less the acceptance of democratic standards and reliable multilateral relations, for being against traditional Turkmen values.
Besides a political guideline enabling Niyazov not to be obliged to other states, neutrality is understood as a moral guideline for society as well.
When both society and the citizens live through a fundamental transformation, political education on the basis of the philosophy of the new political culture [and] moral values of neutrality set up the foundations of new relations in the state.
The policy of permanent neutrality could therefore be seen as a way to positively legitimate the seclusion of the Turkmen society from international developments.
Conclusion: Towards a legitimization of power
Turkmenistan politics were dominated by Niyazov, his personality cult and propagation of a national discourse.
National discourse as a technique to legitimize totalitarian rule.
Making every effort to sanctify his political power by emphasizing his infallibility.
National discourse and the personal qualities of the President are combined in a quasi-religious legitimization of the current social order.
in USSR this kind of ‘political religion’ was a product of the cultural management of the ruling elites. The ritualization of politics in Turkmenistan, takes advantage of religious connotations and the power inherent in them.
Niyazov uses a kind of ‘political liturgy’ to further stabilize his power yet rules in the fashion of a sultanistic ruler.
The absurdity of the Turkmen performance of national culture did not seem to damage the claim to power of the president. The emphasis of a great national history finds the same broad approval as the prominence given to the national cultural values, but personality cult around Niyazov, the general support declines.
What extent the population internalizes the symbolic production of the Turkmen nation? Open protest against the regime became more dangerous and sparks off only on occasions when the population is directly negatively affected.
The process of redesigning the capital as a symbol of ‘golden age architecture’ affecting the lives: as inhabitants of whole districts are forced to leave their homes because of building activities.
There has been a distribution of leaflets in bazaars in July 2004, calling for open opposition, but the few open street protests are not directed against the rule of Niayzov in general, but against the concrete building activities.
official self-representation of the Turkmen nation vis a vis ongoing production of a nation.
the state and the people are not two separate entities.
the legitimization of Niyazov’s totalitarian rule is intimately connected with the phase of liminality that enables the president to act as a wise teacher and to reign de facto as a sultanistic ruler
→ political elite shows no interest in moving beyond the transitional phase of the country to reach the ‘Golden Century’.
Sultanistic regimes: sultanistic regimes X other authoritarian regimes
- a form of totalitarian rule.
- Loyalty is based on a combination of threat and reward.
- The ruler has absolute authority and can rule at his own discretion.
- Characterized by personal despotism.
- The political elite has no power, and is dependent upon the decisions of the ruler.
- Easily exploitable natural resources, such as gas and oil, can provide the financial impetus to sustain such a regime.
- Lack of a genuine and unselfish ideology or vision that finds full acceptance by the people.
- The main goal is the maintenance of their own access to power, which can be concealed by the employment of an artificial ideology.
- Turkmenistan under Niyazov: a sultanistic regime with the artificial ideology of Ruhnama.
- lack of opposition to this regime: a ‘political culture of apathy’.
- However, political apathy does not mean that people in Turkmenistan fully approve of the current politics. People act as social agents while somehow taking part in the symbolic production of the nation. Even if one does not believe in the content of the ideology, coping with it seems to be one possible option.
On the way to the Golden Century: Turkmenistan’s state of liminality
The national revival and the cultural production of the Turkmen nation have taken place in a phase of political transformation after the collapse of the Soviet Union. A nation tries to build up its own identity between a ‘Soviet past’ and a ‘golden future’ and master a more or less unexpected transition. The transition is characterized by certain rites (serving as controlling mechanisms in the dynamics of change)
Only when this inner ‘Golden Century’ under the guidance of Saparmurat Niyazov is reached can the liminal phase be overcome.
