Archaeology Chapter 1/Intro Flashcards
archaeology
sometimes referred to as zooarchaeology, this involves the identification and analysis of faunal species from archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time of deposition.
Material Culture
the buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute the material remains of former societies.
evolution
the process of growth and development generally accompanied by increasing complexity. In biology, this change is tied to Darwin’s concept of natural selection as the basis of species survival. Darwin’s word laid the foundations for the study of artifact typology, pioneered by such scholars as Pitt Rivers and Montelius.
culture
a term used by anthropologists when referring to the non-biological characteristics unique to a particular society.
anthropology
the study of humanity, our physical characteristics as animals, and the unique non-biological characteristics we call culture. The subject is generally broken down into subdisciplines: physical (biological), cultural (social), and archaeology
physical/biological anthropology
deals with the study of human biological or physical characteristics and their evolution
cultural anthropology
deals with non-bioloogical or behavior aspects of society. Two important branches are: ethnography and ethnology.
Disciplines of Anthropology
physical (biological), cultural (social), linguistic, and archaeology
ethnography
study of contemporary cultures through first-hand observation
ethnology
concerned with the comparative study of contemporary cultures, with a view to deriving social principles about human society.
Classical Archaeologists
those who study societies of ancient Greece and Roman civilizations
prehistory
period of human history before the advent of writing
artifacts
any portable object used, modified, or made by humans (stone tools, weapons, etc)
what makes the work of archaeologists different from those who study written history?
historical records often make statements, offer opinions, pass judgments. Objects that archaeologists find tell us nothing directly in themselves.
radiocarbon dating
an absolute dating method that measures the decay of the radioactive isotope of carbon in organic material.
context
an artifact’s context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it), it’s provenience (horizontal and vertical position on the matrix), and its association with other artifacts.
site
a distinct spacial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and environmental remains- the reside of human activity.
excavation
the principal method of data acquisition in archaeology, involving the systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through the removal of the deposits of soil and the other material covering them and accompanying them.
styles
any distinctive and therefore recognizable way in which an act is performed or made.
The First Excavation
Thomas Jefferson dug a trench across Native American burial ground and observed different layers, drawing conclusions from that data.
stratigraphy
the study and validation of stratification, the analysis in the vertical, time dimension, of a series of layers in the horizontal, space dimension. Often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artifact disposition.
deduction
a process of reasoning by which more specific consequences are inferred by rigorous argument from more general propositions.
stratification
the laying down or deposition of strata or layers (also called deposits) one above the other. A succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence, with the earliest at the bottom and the latest at the top.
uniformitarianism
the principle that the stratification of rocks is due to process still going on in seas, rivers, and lakes; ie that geologically ancient conditions were in essence similar to or “uniform with” those of our own time.
The Three Age System
A classification system devised by CJ Thomsen for the sequence of technological periods (stone, bronze, and iron) in Old World pre-history. It established the principle that by classifying artifacts, one could produce a chronological ordering.
Classification
the ordering of phenomena into groups or other classifcatory schemes on the basis of shared attributes.
Paleolithic
the archaeological period before 10k BC, characterized by the earliest known stone tool manufacture.
Neolithic
An Old World chronological period characterized byt he development of agriculture and hence, and increasing emphasis on sedentism.
What did Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan argue?
that human societies had evolves from a state of savagery (primitive hunting) through barbarism (simple farming) to civilization (highest form of society).
Pitt-Rivers
Meticulous archaeologist, high quality, looked at mundane and not just treasures
Mortimer Wheeler
helped create other archaeological methods like grid square - dividing and digging a site.
Kidder’s “blueprint” of regional strategy
- reconnaisance
- selection of criteria for ranking the remains of sites chronologically
- organizing them into a probable sequence
- stratigraphic excavation to elucidate specific problems
- more detailed regional survey and dating
Midwestern Taxonomic System
a framework devised by McKern to systemize sequences in the Great Plains area of the United States , using the general system of similarities between artifact and assemblages
assemblage
a group of artifacts recurring together at a particular time and place, and representing the sum of human activities.
Neolithic Revolution
A term coined by VG Childe in 1941 to describe the origin and consequences of farming, allowing the widespread development of settled village life.
cultural ecology
term devised by Julian Stewart to account for the dynamic relationship between human society and its environment in which culture is viewed as the primary adaptive mechanism.
What was Graham Clark’s approach?
By studying how human populations adapted to their environments we can understand many aspects of ancient society.
New Archaeology
(Binford) New approach advocated in the 1960’s that argued for an explicitly scientific framework of archaeological method and theory, with hypotheses rigorously tested, as the proper basis for for explanation rather than simply description
typology
the systematic organization of artifacts into types on the basis of shared attributes.
Explanatory vs. Descriptive (Pro-Arch)
Archaeology’s role was now to explain past change, not simply to reconstruct the past and how people had lived. This involved the use of explicit theory.
Testing vs. Authority (Pro-Arch)
Hypotheses were made to be tested, and conclusions should not be accepted on the basis of the authority or standing of the research worker.
Culture Process vs. Culture history (Pro-Arch)
Traditional archaeology was seen to reply on historical explanation: The New Archaeology, drawing on the philosophy of science, would think in terms of culture process, how changes in economic and social systems take place. This implies generalization.
Project design vs. Data Accumulation (Pro-Arch)
Research should be designed to answer specific questions economically, not simply to generate more information, which may not be relevant.
Quantitive vs. Simply Qualitative (Pro-Arch)
Quantitative data allowed computerized statistical treatment, with the possibility of sampling and significance testing. This was often preferred to the purely verbal and traditional approach.
Deductive vs. Inductive (Pro-Arch)
Traditional archaeologists saw archaeology as resembling a jigsaw puzzle: the task was one of “piecing together the past.” Instead, the appropriate procedure was now to formulate hypotheses, constructing models, and deducing their consequences.
Optimism vs. Pessimism (Pro-Arch)
Traditional archaeologists often stressed that archaeological data were not well suited to the reconstruction of social organization or cognitive systems. The New Archaeologists were more positive, and argued that it would never be known how hard these problems were until archaeologists had tried to solve them.
Neo-Marxist Element (Post-Pro)
strong commitment to social awareness. It is the duty of the archaeologist not only to describe the past, but to also include such insights to change the present world. Contrasts with objectivity.
Praxis Approach (Post-Pro)
lays stress upon the central role of the human “agent” and upon the primary significance of human actions (praxis) in shaping social structure. Many social norms are established and shaped by habitual experience (and the notion of habitus similarly refers to the unspoken strategy-generating principles employed by the individual, which mediate between social structure and practice.) the role of the individual as a significant agent is thus emphasized.
post-positivist (post-pro)
rejects the emphasis on the systematic procedures of scientific method that are such a feature of processural archaeology , sometimes seeing modern science as hostile to the individual, as forming an integral part of the “systems of domination” by which the forces of capitalism exert their hegemony.
hermeneutic/interpretive (post-pro)
rejects generalization, another feature of processural archaeology. Emphasis on uniqueness of each society and culture and on the need to study the full context of each in all its rich diversity. A related view stressed that there can be no single correct interpretation: each observer or analyst is entitled to his or her own opinion about the past. There will therefore be a diversity of opinions, and a wide range of perspectives- which is why the emphasis is on interpretive archaeologies (plural)
iconography
an important component of cognitive archaeology, this involves the study of artistic representations that usually have an overt religious or ceremonial significance EG individual deities may be distinguished, each with a special characteristic, such as corn with the corn god, or the sun with the sun goddess.
public archaeology
archaeology supported through resources made available as a public obligation
Key Principles (protection of public archaeology)
1) the material record of the past is a public resource that should be managed for the public good
2) when practical circumstances make inevitable some damage to that record, steps should be taken to mitigate the impact through appropriate survey, excavation and research.
3) The developer pays: the persons/organizations initiating the eventual impact should fund the necessary actions in mitigation.
rescue archaeology
the location and recording (usually through excavation) of archaeological sites in advance of highway construction, drainage projects, or urban development.
Cultural Resource Management
the safe guarding of archaeological heritage through the protection of sites and through salvage archaeology, generally within the framework of legislation designed to safeguard the past.
