Archaeology Chapter 1/Intro

Question 1

archaeology

Answer 1

sometimes referred to as zooarchaeology, this involves the identification and analysis of faunal species from archaeological sites, as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets and to an understanding of the contemporary environment at the time of deposition.

Question 2

Material Culture

Answer 2

the buildings, tools, and other artifacts that constitute the material remains of former societies.

Question 3

evolution

Answer 3

the process of growth and development generally accompanied by increasing complexity. In biology, this change is tied to Darwin’s concept of natural selection as the basis of species survival. Darwin’s word laid the foundations for the study of artifact typology, pioneered by such scholars as Pitt Rivers and Montelius.

Question 4

culture

Answer 4

a term used by anthropologists when referring to the non-biological characteristics unique to a particular society.

Question 5

anthropology

Answer 5

the study of humanity, our physical characteristics as animals, and the unique non-biological characteristics we call culture. The subject is generally broken down into subdisciplines: physical (biological), cultural (social), and archaeology

Question 6

physical/biological anthropology

Answer 6

deals with the study of human biological or physical characteristics and their evolution

Question 7

cultural anthropology

Answer 7

deals with non-bioloogical or behavior aspects of society. Two important branches are: ethnography and ethnology.

Question 8

Disciplines of Anthropology

Answer 8

physical (biological), cultural (social), linguistic, and archaeology

Question 9

ethnography

Answer 9

study of contemporary cultures through first-hand observation

Question 10

ethnology

Answer 10

concerned with the comparative study of contemporary cultures, with a view to deriving social principles about human society.

Question 11

Classical Archaeologists

Answer 11

those who study societies of ancient Greece and Roman civilizations

Question 12

prehistory

Answer 12

period of human history before the advent of writing

Question 13

artifacts

Answer 13

any portable object used, modified, or made by humans (stone tools, weapons, etc)

Question 14

what makes the work of archaeologists different from those who study written history?

Answer 14

historical records often make statements, offer opinions, pass judgments. Objects that archaeologists find tell us nothing directly in themselves.

Question 15

radiocarbon dating

Answer 15

an absolute dating method that measures the decay of the radioactive isotope of carbon in organic material.

Question 16

context

Answer 16

an artifact’s context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it), it’s provenience (horizontal and vertical position on the matrix), and its association with other artifacts.

Question 17

site

Answer 17

a distinct spacial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and environmental remains- the reside of human activity.

Question 18

excavation

Answer 18

the principal method of data acquisition in archaeology, involving the systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through the removal of the deposits of soil and the other material covering them and accompanying them.

Question 19

styles

Answer 19

any distinctive and therefore recognizable way in which an act is performed or made.

Question 20

The First Excavation

Answer 20

Thomas Jefferson dug a trench across Native American burial ground and observed different layers, drawing conclusions from that data.

Question 21

stratigraphy

Answer 21

the study and validation of stratification, the analysis in the vertical, time dimension, of a series of layers in the horizontal, space dimension. Often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artifact disposition.

Question 22

deduction

Answer 22

a process of reasoning by which more specific consequences are inferred by rigorous argument from more general propositions.

Question 23

stratification

Answer 23

the laying down or deposition of strata or layers (also called deposits) one above the other. A succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence, with the earliest at the bottom and the latest at the top.

Question 24

uniformitarianism

Answer 24

the principle that the stratification of rocks is due to process still going on in seas, rivers, and lakes; ie that geologically ancient conditions were in essence similar to or “uniform with” those of our own time.

Question 25

The Three Age System

Answer 25

A classification system devised by CJ Thomsen for the sequence of technological periods (stone, bronze, and iron) in Old World pre-history. It established the principle that by classifying artifacts, one could produce a chronological ordering.

Question 26

Classification

Answer 26

the ordering of phenomena into groups or other classifcatory schemes on the basis of shared attributes.

Question 27

Paleolithic

Answer 27

the archaeological period before 10k BC, characterized by the earliest known stone tool manufacture.

Question 28

Neolithic

Answer 28

An Old World chronological period characterized byt he development of agriculture and hence, and increasing emphasis on sedentism.

Question 29

What did Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan argue?

Answer 29

that human societies had evolves from a state of savagery (primitive hunting) through barbarism (simple farming) to civilization (highest form of society).

Question 30

Pitt-Rivers

Answer 30

Meticulous archaeologist, high quality, looked at mundane and not just treasures

Question 31

Mortimer Wheeler

Answer 31

helped create other archaeological methods like grid square - dividing and digging a site.

Question 32

Kidder’s “blueprint” of regional strategy

Answer 32

1. reconnaisance
2. selection of criteria for ranking the remains of sites chronologically
3. organizing them into a probable sequence
4. stratigraphic excavation to elucidate specific problems
5. more detailed regional survey and dating

Question 33

Midwestern Taxonomic System

Answer 33

a framework devised by McKern to systemize sequences in the Great Plains area of the United States , using the general system of similarities between artifact and assemblages

Question 34

assemblage

Answer 34

a group of artifacts recurring together at a particular time and place, and representing the sum of human activities.

Question 35

Neolithic Revolution

Answer 35

A term coined by VG Childe in 1941 to describe the origin and consequences of farming, allowing the widespread development of settled village life.

Question 36

cultural ecology

Answer 36

term devised by Julian Stewart to account for the dynamic relationship between human society and its environment in which culture is viewed as the primary adaptive mechanism.

Question 37

What was Graham Clark’s approach?

Answer 37

By studying how human populations adapted to their environments we can understand many aspects of ancient society.

Question 38

New Archaeology

Answer 38

(Binford) New approach advocated in the 1960’s that argued for an explicitly scientific framework of archaeological method and theory, with hypotheses rigorously tested, as the proper basis for for explanation rather than simply description

Question 39

typology

Answer 39

the systematic organization of artifacts into types on the basis of shared attributes.

Question 40

Explanatory vs. Descriptive (Pro-Arch)

Answer 40

Archaeology’s role was now to explain past change, not simply to reconstruct the past and how people had lived. This involved the use of explicit theory.

Question 41

Testing vs. Authority (Pro-Arch)

Answer 41

Hypotheses were made to be tested, and conclusions should not be accepted on the basis of the authority or standing of the research worker.

Question 42

Culture Process vs. Culture history (Pro-Arch)

Answer 42

Traditional archaeology was seen to reply on historical explanation: The New Archaeology, drawing on the philosophy of science, would think in terms of culture process, how changes in economic and social systems take place. This implies generalization.

Question 43

Project design vs. Data Accumulation (Pro-Arch)

Answer 43

Research should be designed to answer specific questions economically, not simply to generate more information, which may not be relevant.

Question 44

Quantitive vs. Simply Qualitative (Pro-Arch)

Answer 44

Quantitative data allowed computerized statistical treatment, with the possibility of sampling and significance testing. This was often preferred to the purely verbal and traditional approach.

Question 45

Deductive vs. Inductive (Pro-Arch)

Answer 45

Traditional archaeologists saw archaeology as resembling a jigsaw puzzle: the task was one of “piecing together the past.” Instead, the appropriate procedure was now to formulate hypotheses, constructing models, and deducing their consequences.

Question 46

Optimism vs. Pessimism (Pro-Arch)

Answer 46

Traditional archaeologists often stressed that archaeological data were not well suited to the reconstruction of social organization or cognitive systems. The New Archaeologists were more positive, and argued that it would never be known how hard these problems were until archaeologists had tried to solve them.

Question 47

Neo-Marxist Element (Post-Pro)

Answer 47

strong commitment to social awareness. It is the duty of the archaeologist not only to describe the past, but to also include such insights to change the present world. Contrasts with objectivity.

Question 48

Praxis Approach (Post-Pro)

Answer 48

lays stress upon the central role of the human “agent” and upon the primary significance of human actions (praxis) in shaping social structure. Many social norms are established and shaped by habitual experience (and the notion of habitus similarly refers to the unspoken strategy-generating principles employed by the individual, which mediate between social structure and practice.) the role of the individual as a significant agent is thus emphasized.

Question 49

post-positivist (post-pro)

Answer 49

rejects the emphasis on the systematic procedures of scientific method that are such a feature of processural archaeology , sometimes seeing modern science as hostile to the individual, as forming an integral part of the “systems of domination” by which the forces of capitalism exert their hegemony.

Question 50

hermeneutic/interpretive (post-pro)

Answer 50

rejects generalization, another feature of processural archaeology. Emphasis on uniqueness of each society and culture and on the need to study the full context of each in all its rich diversity. A related view stressed that there can be no single correct interpretation: each observer or analyst is entitled to his or her own opinion about the past. There will therefore be a diversity of opinions, and a wide range of perspectives- which is why the emphasis is on interpretive archaeologies (plural)

Question 51

iconography

Answer 51

an important component of cognitive archaeology, this involves the study of artistic representations that usually have an overt religious or ceremonial significance EG individual deities may be distinguished, each with a special characteristic, such as corn with the corn god, or the sun with the sun goddess.

Question 52

public archaeology

Answer 52

archaeology supported through resources made available as a public obligation

Question 53

Key Principles (protection of public archaeology)

Answer 53

1) the material record of the past is a public resource that should be managed for the public good
2) when practical circumstances make inevitable some damage to that record, steps should be taken to mitigate the impact through appropriate survey, excavation and research.
3) The developer pays: the persons/organizations initiating the eventual impact should fund the necessary actions in mitigation.

Question 54

rescue archaeology

Answer 54

the location and recording (usually through excavation) of archaeological sites in advance of highway construction, drainage projects, or urban development.

Question 55

Cultural Resource Management

Answer 55

the safe guarding of archaeological heritage through the protection of sites and through salvage archaeology, generally within the framework of legislation designed to safeguard the past.