Approaches - vocab Flashcards
science
A means of aquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
The unconscious
The part of the mind that consists of mental processes that are inaccessible to conciousness but still influence us.
Id
Entirely unconcious, the id is made up of selfish agressive insticts that demand immediate gratification
Ego
the ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and teh super ego
Superego
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be
defense mechanisms
unconscious stratagesd that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
psychosexual stages
The 5 stages in child development comprising specific conflicts, the outcome of which determines future development.
objective and empirical testing
objectivity = being uninfluenced by personal opinions or past erxperiences, being free from bias.
empiricism = a method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing
psychoanalysis
A form of psychotherapy, originally developed by (Signmund) Freud, that is intended to help patients become aware of long-repressed feelings and issues by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis.
classical conditioning
Learning by association. Occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new neutral stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone
operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
positive reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it is pleasurable.
negative reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it leads to escape from an unpleasant situation and is experienced as rewarding
punishment
Any procedure that decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated because the overall experience is unpleasant.
free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
self actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fufill one’s potential - becoming what you are capable of.
hierarchy of needs
A 5-levelled hierarchal sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.
self
the ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what i am’ and ‘what i can do’
congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and the ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match
conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children; for instance ‘I will only love you if…’
idiographic
(approach)
An approach to research that focuses more on the individual cases as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to fomulate general laws of behaviour
nomothetic
(approach)
An approach to research that focuses more on general laws of behaviour rather that on the individual.
unconditional positive regard
Providing affection and respect without any conditions attached
holistic
definition for holism
An argument/ theory which propoeses that it only makes sense to study a whole system rather than its constituent parts
constituent parts = one of the parts of which a thing is made up
reductionalist
definition for reductionism
The belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts.
internal mental processes
‘private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
inference
the process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behvaiour
soft determinism
The concept that there are constraints on our behavior but within these limitations we are free to make choices
imitation
copying the behaviour of others
identification
when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
modelling
from the observers’ perspective modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
mediational processes
Cognitive factors (eg. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligents). Genes are transmitted from parent to offspring, ie inherited
maladaptive
The extent to which a behaviour is not adaptive (badly adapted). Something that is adaptive increases an individual’s wellbeing and survival.
concordance rates
A measure of similarity (usually expressed as a %) between two individuals or sets of individuals on a given trait.
neurochemistry
relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
genotype
The particular set of genes that a person posesses
phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the enviroment.
evolution
The process by which species change to adapt to their enviroment
cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
introspection
studying and reporting thought processes
