Approaches To Psychology Flashcards
Classical conditioning
Learning through association when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together
Operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
Behaviourism
The theory that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without considering thoughts or feelings
Learning
A relatively lasting change in behaviour that is the result of experience
Punishment
Receiving something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed which decreases the chance that the behaviour is repeated
Response
The reaction to a specific stimulus eg salivating when you see food
Stimulus
Anything in the environment detectable by the senses. E.g. sound smell etc
Vicarious reinforcement
Observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour and the consequences of their actions
Cognitive neuroscience
The study of how the brain enables the mind
Computer models
Software stimulations of internal mental processes created in collaboration with computer scientists
Inference
Process of drawing conclusions about general patterns of behaviour
Internal mental processes
The operations both conscious and unconscious that occur during thinking e.g. perception and memory
Mediating cognitive factors
Internal mental processes that lie between the stimulus and the response
Objective
Not influenced by private emotions, perceptions or biases
Schemas
Mental frameworks of information that we use to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to new situations
Subjective
Affected by personal feelings, prejudices and interpretations
Theoretical models
Diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes e.g. the information-processing model
Holism
Can’t break down into simpler parts. Studies context and complexity of human behaviour
Reductionism
Isolate and study individual components of behaviour in isolation
Nomothetic
Generalised. Find laws and principles that can be applied to large groups
Idiographic
Individual. All about unique context. Uses case studies, interviews etc
Identification
Associating with a role model and adopting their behaviour because you want to be like them
Imitation
Copying or reproducing behaviour that has been learned through observation
Information processing model
The idea that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages
Modelling
Imitating a role model or producing a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by the observer
Mediational process
Mental cognitive factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not
Negative reinforcement
Avoiding or removing something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed that increases the chance of that behaviour being repeated
Positive reinforcement
Receiving something pleasant when a behaviour is performed that increases the chance the behaviour is repeated
Social learning theory
The view that people learn through observing others
ACTH
A hormone released by the pituitary gland. Stimulates the adrenal glands to release adrenaline into the bloodstream
Action potential
A spiking electric charge in an axon caused by sodium ions crossing the cell membrane
Adrenal glands
Small glands on top of each kidney that produce hormones such as adrenal and cortisol
Adrenaline
Key hormone in the stress response that is produced by the adrenal glands and increases heart rate, breathing, etc
Autonomic nervous system
Subdivision of peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary responses like breathing and heart rate
Axon
A single long slender fibre that carries the nerve impulse away from the cell body
Axon terminal
The very end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters and makes synaptic contact with the next neuron in the train
Central nervous system
Subsist with the nervous system that consist of the brain and spinal cord
Chromosome
Hold the genetic material that is passed between parents and offspring. Humans have 23 pairs
Concordance rate
The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic
Dendrites
Rootlike structures protruding from the cell body that receives signals from other neurons
DZ twins
Non identical twins who share 50% of their genes
Endocrine system
A collection of organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Evolution
Gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations
Excitation
Occurs when a link between a neurotransmitter and receptor site in a sign that makes the receptor site sound more likely to act
Fight or flight response
The way an animal (including humans) responds to stress as it becomes physiologically aroused to fight an aggressor or to run away
Genotype
A genetic makeup that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception
Hormones
Biochemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream in order to target specific organs
Hypothalamus
Part of the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system. Releases hormones that stimulate the pituitary gland
Inhibition
Occurs when a link between a neurotransmitter and receptor site in a synapse makes the receptor sites cell less likely to act
Motor neuron
Carry signals from the central nervous system to internal organs and muscles
Myelin sheath
A fatty layer that protects the exon and speeds up the electrical transmitters of the nerve impulse
NZ twins
Identical twins who share 100% of their genes
Natural selection
The way that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances the ability to survive and reproduce will continue in future generations
Nervous system
Bodily system consisting of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system that provides rapid responses to stimuli
Neuron
Cells within the nervous system that process and transmit messages
Neurotransmitter
Chemicals that transfer signals from one neuron to another across the synapses that lie between them
Parasympathetic nervous system
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that controls the ‘rest and digest’ response
Peripheral nervous system
Sub-system of the nervous system in the transmit messages from the body to the central nervous system and back again
Phenotype
The expression of a persons genetic makeup that can be influenced by the environment
Pituitary gland
This is located in the brain and considered the ‘master gland’. It controls the release of hormones from other glands.
Postsynaptic receptor sites
In the dendrites of the receiving neuron, they take up the neurotransmitter once it has crossed the synaptic gap
Reciprocal determinism
The way in person is influenced by their environment, but also influences their environment
Relay neuron
Carries signals between sensory and motor neurons or connects to other relay neurons within the central nervous system
Sensory neuron
Carry signals from the senses to the central nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that controls muscle movement and receives information from the sensory receptors
Sympathetic nervous system
Subdivision of the autonomic system that controls our flight or flight response
Synapse
The tiny gap between one neuron and the next
Synaptic transmission
The way that signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synaptic gap
Twin study
Used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates between pairs of twins
Defence mechanism
Any of a group of mental processes that enables the mind to reach compromise solutions to conflict that is unable to resolve
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality to avoid anxiety
Displacement
Transferring feelings from the true source of this stress and motion to a substitute target. “ Taking feelings out” on a less threatening or helpless object or person
Id
The impulsive and unconscious half of our psyche that responds directly and immediately to basic urges needs and desires. The personality of the newborn child is all Id
Ego
What the person is aware of when they think about themselves and what they usually try to object towards others
Superego
Incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one’s parents and others.
Repression
Unconsciously forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind, including unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts or impulses
Psychosexual stages
Oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital
Oral
The first stage of Sigmund Freud‘s theory of psychosexual development occurring from birth until 18 months old during the oral stage of babies libido ordinate pleasure seeking energy is focused on the mouth
Anal
Second stage of psychosexual development between the ages of 18 months and three years. the libido becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.
Phallic
Third phase of psychosexual development spans ages 3 to 6. Marked by the child’s libido, focusing on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure
Oedipus complex
The fear of retaliation from the father eventually leads to the boy to repress incestuous desires and identify with the father adopting his characteristics and values
Electric complex
During the phallic stage of psychosexual development, a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards her father viewing her mother as a competitor. Attempts to identify with her father but realises she lacks a penis leading to penis MV and a subsequent wish to be male
Latency
Fourth stage of psychosexual development spanning six years to puberty. Libido is dormant in this stage and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden)
Genital
Final stage of development, begins with the onset of puberty, the person seeks ways of satisfying sexual impulses in heterosexual relationships
Psychodynamic approach
States that events in our childhood have a significant influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.
Congruence
A state in which a persons ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar
Free will
The idea that we can play an active role and have a choice in how we behave
Humanistic approach
A perspective that emphasises looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self efficacy and self actualisation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Respectively; self actualisation, esteem needs, belongingness and love needs, safety needs, physiological needs
Self actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically, and fulfill one’s potential
