Approaches - The Behaviourist Approach

Question 1

Behaviourist

Answer 1

People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings.

Question 2

What does the Behaviourist approach reject and what do they instead focus on?

Answer 2

The vagueness of introspection, focusing instead on observable events (i.e. stimuli and responses, and the conditions under which learning would be most likely to occur - so often called learning theory).

Question 3

Classical Conditioning

Answer 3

When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of the stimulus and it able to produce a conditioned response.

Question 4

Who undertook research on classical conditioning?

Answer 4

Ivan Pavlov

Question 5

UCS

Answer 5

Unconditioned stimulus

Question 6

UCR

Answer 6

Unconditioned response

Question 7

NS

Answer 7

Neutral stimulus

Question 8

CS

Answer 8

Conditioned Stimulus

Question 9

CR

Answer 9

Conditioned Response

Question 10

Before Conditioning

Answer 10

Unconditioned Stimulus (e.g. food) = Unconditioned Response (e.g. salivation)
Neutral Stimulus (e.g. bell) = No response (e.g. no salivation)

Question 11

During conditioning

Answer 11

Unconditioned Stimulus (e.g. food) + Neutral Stimulus (e.g. bell) = Unconditioned Response (e.g. salivation)

Question 12

After Conditioning

Answer 12

Neutral Stimulus has become Conditioned Stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (e.g. bell) = Conditioned Response (e.g. salivation)

Question 13

Other important features to Classical Conditioning

Answer 13

Timing, extinction, spontaneous recovery and stimulus generalisation.

Question 14

Timing - classical conditioning

Answer 14

If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great), then conditioning does not take place.

Question 15

Extinction - classical conditioning

Answer 15

Pavlov discovered that, unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR.

Question 16

Spontaneous Recovery - classical conditioning

Answer 16

Following extinction, if the CS and UCS are then paired together again, the link between them is made much more quickly.

Question 17

Stimulus generalisation - classical conditioning

Answer 17

Pavlov discovered that one an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.

Question 18

Operant Conditioning

Answer 18

Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again i the future.

Question 19

Who conducted research into Operant Conditioning?

Answer 19

Skinner

Question 20

What is basic theory behind Operant Conditioning?

Answer 20

Idea that organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours, and these behaviours produce consequences for that organism, some of which may be positive (i.e. desirable) and some negative (i.e. undesirable). Whether or not organism repeats a particular behaviour depends on the nature of these consequences (i.e. it is reinforced).

Question 21

What special cage did Skinner create and what is its purpose?

Answer 21

The Skinner Box. To investigate operant conditioning in rats.

Question 22

How does the Skinner box work?

Answer 22

The rat moves around the cage, and when it accidentally presses a lever, a food pellet (the reinforcer) falls into the cage. Soon hungry rat begins pressing lever to obtain food. If food pellets stop, rat presses lever a few more times and then abandons (extinction).

Question 23

Reinforcement Operant Conditioning Definition

Answer 23

A term in psychology to refer to anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

Question 24

Types of reinforcement

Answer 24

Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Question 25

When does positive reinforcement occur and example?

Answer 25

When behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism. E.g. food to a hungry animal or praise given to a child after they do something particularly well.

Question 26

What do negative reinforcers do? And example.

Answer 26

They remove something aversive (unpleasant) and so restore the organism to its ‘pre-aversive’ state. E.g. the act of hitting the ‘off’ button on an alarm clock allows a person to escape from the unpleasant ringing and restores the restful pre-alarm state.

Question 27

What are other important features to operant conditioning?

Answer 27

Schedules do reinforcement and punishment.

Question 28

Schedules of reinforcement in operant conditions.

Answer 28

Although a continuous reinforcement schedule (e.g. reinforcing a rat every time it pushes a lever) is most effective in establishing a particular response, a partial reinforcement schedule (e.g. reinforcing every 3rd lever press or every ten minutes) is more effective in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction.

Question 29

Punishment in Operant Conditioning Definition

Answer 29

Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future.

Question 30

Example of positive and negative punishment operant conditioning.

Answer 30

Positive - adding something unpleasant as a consequence, such as slapping a naughty child.
Negative - taking something pleasant away, such as grounding a naughty teenager.

Question 31

Classical Conditioning Strengths: treatments

Answer 31

Led to development of treatments for reduction of anxiety associated with various phobias. Systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning.

Question 32

Strength of Classical Conditioning: Systematic desensitisation and when is it effective?

Answer 32

Therapy works by eliminating learned anxious response (anxiety) and replaces it with another (relaxation) so that the person is no longer anxious in the presence of the feared object or when in the feared situation. Found to be effective for phobias such as the fear of spiders and fear of flying.

Question 33

Limitations of Classical Conditioning Explanations: different species face different challenges to survive, so have different capabilities to learn through the process of classical conditioning. As a result…

Answer 33

Relationships between CS and UCS tend to be more difficult to establish for some species than for others.

Question 34

Limitations of Classical Conditioning Explanations: Seligman (1970) concept of preparedness.

Answer 34

Animals are prepared to learn associations significant in terms of survival needs (e.g. dog quick;y learn to associate smell of meat with food), yet unprepared to learn associations that are not significant in this respect (e.g. dog will find it harder to associate sound of a bell with food).

Question 35

Skinner Box Positive Reinforcement

Answer 35

Hungry rat moved around and would accidentally hit lever which released pellet of food. After a few time the rat learnt to go straight to the lever.

Question 36

Skinner Box Negative Reinforcement

Answer 36

Rat in box would get electric current shot through it causing discomfort. As rat moved it would ht lever which turned of current. Soon rat learnt to go straight to lever to tun off current.

Question 37

Five different schedules of reinforcement

Answer 37

Continuous reinforcement, fixed ratio reinforcement, fixed interval reinforcement, variable ratio reinforcement and variable interval reinforcement.

Question 38

Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 38

Involves reinforcing a response every time it occurs.

Question 39

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Answer 39

Reinforcing a behaviour after a specific number of responses have occurred.

Question 40

Fixed interval reinforcement

Answer 40

Reinforcing a behaviour after a specific period of time has elapsed.

Question 41

Variable ratio reinforcement

Answer 41

Reinforcing the behaviour after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 42

Variable interval reinforcement

Answer 42

Reinforcing the behaviour after an unpredictable period of time has elapsed.

Question 43

Strength of Operant Conditioning: Application

Answer 43

It is used to shape behaviours. Behaviour modification techniques based on reward are used widely in clinical and educational settings.

Question 44

Strength of Operant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning: Empirical Methods

Answer 44

Both rely on experimental methods. By using controlled conditions, Pavlov and Skinner were able to establish causal relationships by manipulation of the IV and careful measurement of the DV. Reliable.

Question 45

Weakness of CC and OC: use of animals in research

Answer 45

Means the process of CC might not have consistent application. Seligman concept of ‘preparedness’.
Generalising from animals to humans. Apart from little Albert CC and OP mainly used on non human animals. Reliance on dogs, rats and pigeons tells us little about human behaviour. Humans have consciousness and free will, an ability to resist conditioning and impose meaning on the status of reinforcement available. But Skinner says free will is just an illusion and behaviours we believe are chosen by free will are actually product of external influences.

Question 46

Limitations of behaviourist approach: a limited perspective on behaviour?

Answer 46

Accused of ignoring other levels of explanation such as those who emphasise importance of cognitive factors and emotional states. Treating humans as just product of conditioning ignores evidence for role of other factors shaping behaviour. Skinner rejects saying scientifically untestable states. Complex behaviours better understood by studying reinforcement history of individual.