Approaches Key Terms

Question 1

Science [Origins]

Answer 1

‘Discovering the physical and natural world systematically & objectively using empirical methods (e.g. observation, experimentation).’

Question 2

Introspection [Origins]

Answer 2

Making inferences about internal mental processes based on observed and described behaviour.

1) Pps trained to objectively report conscious experiences
2) Pps focus on sensory object (e.g. ticking metronome)
3) Pps systematically report experience of object through sensations, feelings & images.

Question 3

Introspection Evaluation

Answer 3

Strengths
- Highly scientific => Controlled, large sample, transparent method, systematic approach
- Still used today in therapy & Influenced cognitive psychology (e.g. memory, attention, perception)
- Argued behaviours are determined => can be studied objectively => Helps MH treatments & criminal behaviour

Weaknesses
- Subjective => Self-report is biased (e.g. demand characteristics)
- Inference = not scientific

Question 4

Classical Conditioning [Behaviour]

Answer 4

(a.k.a associative learning)

Unconditioned response can be triggered by a NS through repeated pairing, eventually producing conditioned response.

NS => No response
UCS => UCR
UCS + NS => UCR
CS (NS) => CR (UCR)

Question 5

Operant Conditioning
[Behaviour]

Answer 5

(a.k.a learning by reinforcement)
Creatures perform voluntary actions and subsequently learn about the consequences of the actions.

Question 6

Skinner’s Research
[Behaviour]

Answer 6

Rats/pigeons => ‘Skinner Box’

Animals placed in and Skinner observed how they learned to operate levers to receive a reward/avoid punishment.

Demonstrated that behaviour is influenced by consequences.

Question 7

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 7

Pleasant stimulus is added to encourage desired behaviour.

Question 8

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 8

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behaviour.

Question 9

Positive Punishment

Answer 9

Adding an unpleasant stimulus following an undesired behaviour.

Question 10

Negative Punishment

Answer 10

Removing a pleasant stimulus following an undesired behaviour.

Question 11

Extinction

Answer 11

If reinforcing consequences stop, animal stops performing behaviour.

Question 12

Behaviour Shaping

Answer 12

It is possible to train animals to perform very complex behaviour by gradually rewarding progressively more complex behaviours.

Question 13

Classical vs Operant

Answer 13

Classical
- Involuntary response
- Acquisition of responses
(e.g. developing a phobia)

Operant
- Voluntary Response
- Maintenance of responses (e.g. avoiding phobias)

Question 14

Evaluation of Behaviourist Approach

Answer 14

Strengths
- Scientific: objectively observable & studies S-R mechanisms
- Highly replicable (lab controlled)
- Practical applications (e.g. counter-conditioning)

Weaknesses
- Not generalisable: uses animals - less complex creatures
- Unethical to apply to humans as they are manipulative
- Reductionist: simplistic S-R links

Question 15

Social Learning Theory

Answer 15

Agrees with behaviourism principles but argues human behaviour involves cognitive processes in a social context.

Question 16

Vicarious Reinforcement

Answer 16

Mimicking someone actions after observing them being rewarded for their actions (and vice versa for punishment).

Question 17

Modelling

Answer 17

Individuals we observe & emulate.

Live models = real people
Symbolic models = fictional characters

Question 18

Identification

Answer 18

We are more likely to imitate models with similar characteristics (e.g. gender).

Question 19

Mediational Factors

Answer 19

Behaviour can’t be understood without understanding cognitive processes of stimuli and response.

• Attention: Focus on specific behaviours.
• Retention: Remember observed behaviours.
• Reproduction: Belief in ability to replicate behaviour.
• Motivation: Willingness to perform behaviour, influenced by expected outcomes.

Missing one process means behaviour is not imitated.

Question 20

Bandura’s Research (1961)

Answer 20

Tested whether children would imitate aggressive behaviour of adults towards a bobo doll.

1 group observed aggressive behaviour, the other non-aggressive.

Children were more likely to be aggressive if they saw it demonstrated, especially if they identified with the role model.

Question 21

Bandura Variation (1963)

Answer 21

Tested whether the same was true of symbolic models as were true of real models.

Found that symbolic and real models had similar effects on children.

Question 22

Bandura Variation (1965)

Answer 22

Tested whether children would imitate if they saw the punishment that followed.
(i.e. Vicarious reinforcement)

Children were far less aggressive if they saw the negative consequences of aggression.

Question 23

Evaluation

Answer 23

Strengths
- Supporting evidence (e.g. Bandura)
- Less reductionist: more detailed understanding of behaviour
- ‘Reciprocal Determinism’ is potentially more valid

Weaknesses
- Bandura lacks ecological validity, temporal validity and applicability
- Research relies on inferences (e.g. mediating factors, identification)

Question 24

Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura)

Answer 24

Behaviour is influenced by and influences individual factors and the environment.