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Psychology > Research Methods Key Terms > Flashcards

Research Methods Key Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Mundane Realism

A

How similar a task in an experiment is to an activity in real life.

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2
Q

Observer Effect

A

Participants alter their behaviour because they realise/know they are being observed.

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3
Q

Overt

A

Type of observation where participants know they are being observed.
+ Able to gain consent

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4
Q

Covert

A

Type of observation where participants are unaware that they are being observed.
+ Avoids demand characteristics

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5
Q

Controlled

A

Type of observation (opposite of naturalistic) where researcher sets up a situation and observes.

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6
Q

Aim vs Hypothesis

A

Aim = What a study is trying to achieve.
Hypothesis = Specific prediction about what will be found expressed in terms of changes in variables.

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7
Q

Opportunity

A

Type of sampling where participants are chosen based on the fact that they are easily accessible. (e.g. friends, family)
- Prone to bias, not usually representative

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8
Q

Systematic

A

Type of sampling where there is a regular system in place to choose participants.
+ Reduces researcher bias
- Potential participants can be excluded (e.g. not on social media) > leads to bias

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9
Q

Volunteer

A

Type of sampling where participants select themselves (e.g. by responding to an advert)
- Certain personalities are more likely to put themselves forward

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10
Q

Stratified

A

Type of sampling where participants are selected in proportion to the wider population.
+ Reduces bias

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11
Q

Random

A

Type of sampling where all participants have equal chance of being selected.
+ Rules of probability suggest it will be representative
- Still may contain bias

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12
Q

Pilot Study

A

Small version of experiment using planned methodology, often uses opportunity sampling.
+ Allows researcher to ascertain whether the study will be worthwhile
+ Good practice to improve the actual experiment

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13
Q

Ceiling Effect

A

When ALL/MOST participants score highly on the experiment test - skews the data.

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14
Q

Repeated Measures

A

[Experimental Design]
Every participant completes every condition.
+ Minimises participant variables

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15
Q

Independent Groups

A

[Experimental Design]
Each participant takes part in a single condition.
+ Avoids order effects

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16
Q

Matched Pairs

A

[Experimental Design]
A mix of RM and IG, participants only complete one condition but they are matched to people of similar demographic in other group.

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17
Q

Order Effects

A

[Experimental Design]
Change in participants’ performance due to repetition.

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18
Q

Event Sampling

A

[Observational Design]
Recording every time a categorised event happens over a period of time.

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19
Q

Time Sampling

A

[Observational Design] Recording the most prominent behaviours at many different points in time.
Time stamps chosen randomly or systematically.

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20
Q

Behavioural Categories

A

[Observational Design]
Breaking down the target behaviour into observable and operationalised categories.

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21
Q

Likert Scale

A

Closed questions which people rank from 1 to 7 how strongly they agree/disagree with a statment.

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22
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Anything that is not the IV that may affect the results.

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23
Q

Independent Variable

A

Variable that researcher manipulates.

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24
Q

Dependent Variable

A

Variable that researcher measures.

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25
Q

Confounding Variable

A

An unmeasured third variable that influences, or “confounds,” the relationship between an IV and a DV suggesting a false correlation.
OR
Another variable that changes across two conditions of an experiment, invalidating it.

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26
Q

Counterbalancing

A

1/2 of participants do condition 1, then 2.
Other 1/2 of participants do condition 2, then 1.

This removes order effects.

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27
Q

Standardisation

A

Using a standard procedure for all participants. (e.g. same instructions, briefing & debriefing, materials, how experiment is conducted)

Avoids EVs and CVs.

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28
Q

Randomisation

A

Order of tasks/presentation of data is decided via random method to prevent order effects.

29
Q

Random Allocation

A

Allocation of participants to conditions in an experiment - controls participant variables.

30
Q

Investigator Effects

A
31
Q

Researcher bias/ Investigator Effects

A

Research unintentionally/unconsciously influences outcome of research they are conducting via non-verbal communication, physical characteristics or a bias in interpretation of data.

32
Q

Single-blind Studies

A

The participants are unaware as to which group they are in (i.e. experimental or control) but the experimenter knows.

33
Q

Double-blind Studies

A

Both researchers & participants are unaware of which group is experimental or control.

34
Q

Placebo Effect

A

People’s expectations/beliefs influence or determine their experience in a situation.

35
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

Participant changes responses to look good. Can be in an interview or any other setting.

36
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

When participants behave in a certain way to try and match the expectations of the experiment. Leads to biased results.

(a.k.a Hawthorne Effect - Hawthorne Electrical Plant, workers’ productivity increased due to awareness of observation)

37
Q

Informed Consent

A

Written description of what participants can expect during an experiment, including risks and implications of research. Also reminds them of their right to withdraw. Also guarentees any data collected is confidential.

38
Q

Deception

A

Purposely misleading participants to maintain experiment integrity, without harming the participants. A debrief is required afterwards.

39
Q

Socially Sensitive Research

A

Where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the people represented by the research.

Sieber and Stanley (1988)

40
Q

Menges (1973)

A

Meta-analysis of 1000 studies in APA journals

  • 20% gave participants false/misleading info
  • <50% received a debrief
  • 40% of students were participating for credits
  • Minority were volunteers
  • 3% had no deception

Showed necessity to improve ethical guidelines.

+ Increased ethics awareness
+ New ethics guidelines since
+ Temporal validity?

41
Q

Peer Review

A

Research is looked over by multiple anonymous experts to decide whether the research is ethical, flawed in design, replicable, valuable to society

42
Q

Face Validity

A

When a participant can look at a test and tell what it is supposed to measure.

Can be assessed by looking at it.

43
Q

Concurrent Validity

A

When a test will produce similar results to a benchmark test.

Can be assessed by comparing test results.

44
Q

Ecological Validity

A

Type of EXTERNAL validity that refers to how well findings can be generalised to a real-life setting, or how well a test reflects real life scenarios.

Can be assessed by looking at it.

45
Q

Temporal Validity

A

How well a test’s results stand over time.

Can be assessed by predicting future tests from a past test.

46
Q

Validity

A

When a test measures what it is set out to measure.

47
Q

Reliability

A

How consistent a test or study is. (i.e. if repeated in the same conditions, does it produce the same results?)

48
Q

External Reliability

A

A test/study consistently produces the same results no matter the time given.

Measured via test-retest method (repeating a study).

49
Q

Internal Reliability

A

Looking at the same test and seeing if all parts have consistent results.

Measured by split-half method to see if there is a strong +ve correlation between both halves.

50
Q

Inter-observer Reliability

A

Tests are administered by different researchers to see if there is a strong +ve correlation between results.

51
Q

Empirical Method

A

1) Ask a question
2) Form a theory
3) Make a hypothesis
4) Carry out study
5) Adjust theory

52
Q

Replicability

A

If a study can be repeated with same conditions and produce the same results.

53
Q

Paradigm

A

Collective body of evidence, theories and results that define a certain aspect of science.

Psychology is said to be made of ‘mini paradigms’.

54
Q

Paradigm Shift

A

A new body of evidence is presented that disrupts the current accepted thinking.

55
Q

Kuhn’s Theory

A

Science should have a shared set of…
- Assumptions
- Scientific Methods
- Terminology

56
Q

Falsifiability

A

Whether something can be shown to be false by observation or experimentation.

[Popper (1969) said scientific theories are abstract so we should prove them false, not correct.]

57
Q

Scientific Report

A

Title
Abstract
Introduction
Aims & Hypotheses
Method
(Design, procedure, participants, conditions, resources)
Results
Discussion
References
Appendices

58
Q

Systematic Reviews

A

Psychologist reviews studies that have already been done, drawing conclusions based on multiple studies and identifying gaps in research.

59
Q

Meta-Analysis

A

Researcher calculates an overall finding on the basis of multiple previous studies.

60
Q

Central Tendency

A

Mean
+ Takes all values into account
- Affected by extremes
Median (midpoint)
+ Unaffected by extremes
- No median in even data set
Mode (most common)
+ Only option for nominal data
- Can be multiple modes

61
Q

Dispersion

A

How spread out a set of scores are.

Examples:
Range: Highest - lowest score
+ Easy to calculate
- Affected by extremes

Standard deviation:
Square root of the mean of the squares minus the square of the mean.
+ Shows how clustered data is
+ Unaffected by extremes
- Difficult to calculate
- Doesn’t show full range

IQR:
+ Good for ordinal data
+ Not as affected by extremes
- Difficult to calculate
- Doesn’t use all data

62
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

(Usually represented by the letter r)
A number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Calculated using: SPEARMAN’S RHO

63
Q

Spearman’s Rho Test

A

Calculates a correlation coefficient.

Once calulcated, if it is greater than/equal to the critical value it is statistically significant and you reject the null hypothesis.
(-ve sign is ignored)

64
Q

Normal Distribution

A

A set of data whose scores are very common in the middle of the distribution. (Bell-shaped curve)
- 50/50 scores above and below the mean
- 68% of scores within 1 SD
- 95% scores fall within 2 SD

65
Q

Types of Data

A

Nominal: Categories
(e.g. hair colour)
Ordinal: Scale
(e.g. Likert Scale)
Interval: Scale (equal unit size)
(Must be objective)
Ratio: Scale (no -ve)
(e.g. ruler)

     R      I      C  N      S      C     C O     W     M     S I       R      U      P
66
Q

Type 1 vs 2 Error

A

1: False +ve, incorrectly rejecting null hypothesis
(usually lenient significance level)
2: False -ve, incorrectly ACCEPTING null hypothesis
(usually strict significance level)

67
Q

Sign Test

A
  • Test of differences
  • Used to compare scores from RM design

1) Count +ve/-ve signs
Calculated value = smaller value
2) Find relevant significance level for total of +/- (N)
3) If calculated value is less then/equal to critical value it is significant

68
Q

Chi Squared

A

1) 2x2 contingency table showing observed frequencies (O)
2) Label cells A,B,C,D
3) Table of expected frequencies (E = Row total x column total / grand total)
4) O-E
5) Square (O-E)
6) Divide this by E
7) Add up all of this column
8) (rows - 1)(columns-1) = 1 (Degrees of Freedom and significance) Compare result to significance level (should be greater than/equal to critical value)
9) Statement of significance

Psychology (15 decks)

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