Approaches and methods chapter 2 part 2 Flashcards
Theories
What do all language teaching methods rely on, either explicitly or implicitly?
Although specific theories on the nature of language learning may form the basis of particular teaching methods, all methods, either explicitly or implicitly, rely on a theory of language learning.
What do language theories explain in the context of second language acquisition?
These language theories explain the cognitive processes (such as perception, attention, memory, problem-solving, and language comprehension), as well as the personal (e.g., self-reflection, motivation, and individual learning strategies), interpersonal (e.g., group interactions like conversations, cooperation, and feedback), and social processes (e.g., broader dynamics such as cultural norms, peer pressure, and group collaboration) that learners utilise in second language acquisition.
What has research on second language acquisition led to, and how do different methods utilize these findings?
Research on second language acquisition has led to the development of a diverse set of theories used to describe how languages are learnt and different methods draw on different learning theories often more than one.
What are cognitive processes and what role do they play in language learning?
(Chatgpt)
are mental processes that play a crucial role in language learning. These include several key aspects:
Perception: How learners interpret and process information from their surroundings (e.g., hearing new words and recognizing patterns in speech).
Attention: What the learner focuses on, such as specific grammatical structures or vocabulary during a lesson.
Memory: How learners store and retrieve knowledge, including short-term memory (for immediate use) and long-term memory (for language retention).
Problem-solving: The ability to figure out language rules (e.g., inferring grammar patterns or meaning from context).
Language comprehension: Understanding words, phrases, and sentences by making connections between new language and prior knowledge.
Behaviorism
-The view that learning is the process of in which behaviours are acquired in response to stimuli.
- Correct responses are reinforced and increase the chance of the behaviour becoming learned (Skinner 1957).
-Learning involves habit formation through repetition and reinforcement
-Theory basis for Audiolingual Method
-Language was taught through drilling and repetition exercises and activites that minimized the chance of making mistakes.
Cognitive-code Learning
- developed in 1960s as an alternative to behaviorism
- Emphasized that language learning was a cognitive process depending on:
- both deductive and inductive learning as well as meaningful practice.
- Students are taught grammatical rules which they then apply in practice.
- Learning depends on cognitive processing and mental effort.
PPP approach (Presentation-Practice-Production) used in Situational Language Teaching can be linked to Cognitive-code Learning, as well as methods such as the Silent Way.
Creative-construction hypothesis
- Theory first proposed in 1970’s as an alternative to behaviourism
- Theory still implicit in current theories of second language acquisition
- Learning is not simply a question of reproducing input
- But a creative process that has common features regardless of learner’s language background. This accounts for similarities seen in the language produced by linguistically diverse second language learners.
Skill Learning
- Definition: Involves learning sets of behaviors through practice.
Individual Components: Complex tasks are broken down into smaller sub-skills (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) that are integrated into a full performance (e.g., making a presentation in English).
Hierarchy of Skills: Language performance is built through sub-skills that progress from simple to complex.
Controlled Processing:
- At first, learners consciously manage and direct their performance, focusing on individual sub-skills (e.g., constructing sentences).
- This is called controlled processing and requires conscious attention.
Automatic Processing:
- With practice and exposure, learners no longer need to think about each step—they can perform tasks automatically (e.g., speaking fluently without thinking of grammar rules).
- This is called automatic processing.
The Development Process:
- Learning involves progressing from controlled processing to automatic processing as tasks become more familiar.
Application to Language Learning:
- Many language teaching methods view language as a skill-based process, refined through practice and repetition.
Constructivism
- Had a powerful influence on education and on theories of second language learning
- Draws on work of Jean Piaget, John Dewey (child development) as well as Lev Vygotsky
- Rather than viewing learning as passive and absorbing external knowledge and making it part of one’s own understanding (through transmission), learning results from the learners internal construction of meaning.
- The learner is connected to the meaning they construct through experience, whether from learning activities or interactions within the community of learners.
- Emphasizes that learners are actively involved in their own process of learning.
- Dynamic process that has both:
a) cognitive dimensions: the learner organises new knowledge on the basis of existing knowledge
b) Social dimensions: the learner interacts with otherrs and solves problems through dialogue (this latter view is referred to as sociocultural learning theory see below) - Constructivism approaches to learning emphasize student-centred and project based learning
- Constructivist theories of learning are seen in concepts such as: restructuring,schema theory, and scaffolding
- Also seen in Communicative Language Teaching, Community Language Learning, Cooperative Language Learning and Whole Language.
Sociocultural learning theory (also known as social constructivism)
- Extension of both constructivism and interactional theory
- Views language learning as resulting from dialogue between a learner and a more knowledgeable other person
- ‘Sociocultural’ means that learning takes place in a social setting (e.g., classroom) through interaction between people (teachers and students) and objects (texts, books, images), through culturally organised activities and events (instructional acts and sequences
- Learning is the process of guided participation, directed by someone more knowledgeable.
- Through repeated participation in a variety of joint activities, the novice gradually develops new knowledge and skills
- ‘scaffolding’ play an important part
- In the classroom ‘scaffolding’ is the process of interaction between two or more people as they carry out classroom activities and where one person (e.g. teacher or another learner)has more advanced knowlede than the other (the learner)
- During the process interaction proceeds as a kind of joint problem-solving activity between teacher and student.
- Collaborative dialogue ‘scaffolds’ the learning process by initially providing suport (the ‘scaffold’) and gradually removing support as learning develops.
- Many current teaching proposals, such as CLIL and text-based and task-based instruction, attribute (recognise as important/give credit to ) an important role to the process of scaffolded learning.
Chatgpt:
“Culturally organised” means that the way learning activities are planned and done depends on the culture or environment.
For example:
In one classroom, students may work together in groups to solve a problem (this reflects a culture that values collaboration).
In another classroom, students may listen to the teacher explain and take notes (this reflects a culture that values teacher-led instruction).
Individual factors
- The attributes individual learners bring to language learning can also have an important influence on learning
- Attributes include:
i) Learning style preferences (such as whether a learner likes to learn alone or in groups)
ii) Affective factors (such as shyness anxiety, entusiamsm and other emotions that language learning may elicit and that may influence the learner’s: attitude, desire, interest in, and willingness to invest effort in second language learning
iii) Learning strategies – the ways which learners a) plan b) manage c) evaluate their own language development over time and identify areas that need improvement. (strategies discussed in chapter 19) - Teaching methods often take into account these attributes
- Methods may seek to address individual learning factors by attempting to match teaching strategies to learning styles by:
i) Enhancing motivation through choice of content that is of high interest value or relevance (as with Content-Based Instruction)
ii) Delaying speaking and focusing on comprehension in an introductory language course in order to address the issue of anxiety (as in the Natural Approach)
iii) Using group-based learning for those that prefer learning in groups ( as with Cooperative Language Learning) - Methods may also seek to develop and guide learners’ use of particular learning strategies (as seen in Task-Based Language Teaching)
