Approaches

Question 1

The focus of the behaviourist approach

Answer 1

• Reject vague introspection to focus on observable events; introspection is not a clear of observable concept
• Believes all behaviour can be learnt- basic processes that govern all species are the same, thus experimented with animals instead of humans
• Observable behaviour can be scientifically and objectively measured.

Question 2

Classical conditioning

Answer 2

learning through association

Question 3

study for CC

Answer 3

1927 Pavlov, used dogs how they could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell (a NS) when repeatedly presented at the same time as food. After multiple pairings, the bell can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.

• May take many pairings to acquire a conditioned response
• Conditioned response may be weaker than the UCR (e.g. dog salivates less or may be slower to start)

Question 4

How does CC apply to humans?

Answer 4

The Little Albert Case Study by John Watson and Rayner. Little Albert developed a fear of rats due to multiple pairings of a loud bang (which elicited fear) and the rats.

Question 5

Systematic desensitisation

Answer 5

• A real world application of CC
• A therapy that led to the development of the treatment of phobias.
• Replaces a learned response (fear) with relaxation. The client works out a hierarchy of their fear and uses learned relaxation techniques in the presence of the feared object/situation
• Proven effective for phobias like arachnophobia and aerophobia.

Question 6

Limitation of Classical Conditioning

Answer 6

Seligman 1970- proposed the concept of Preparedness. This suggests that animals are prepared to learn associations significant to their survival. Different species face different challenges to survive. Relationships between the CS and UCS tend to be more difficult to establish for some species than others.
Species are unprepared to learn associations that dont involve survival
This challenges the belief of behaviourism that any behaviour can be learned.

Question 7

Operant conditioning

Answer 7

learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then the behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future.

Question 8

Reinforcement

Answer 8

strengthens a particular behaviour
positive reinforcement- adding something positive
negative reinforcement- taking away something negative

Question 9

Punishment

Answer 9

weakens a particular behaviour
positive- adding something negative
negative- taking away something positive

Question 10

Study of OC

Answer 10

Skinner 1938
organisms produce different behaviours which have consequences + or - and the organism repeats the behaviour depending on the nature of the consequences.
The Skinner Box- OC in rats. the rat moves around the cage, and when it accidentally presses the lever a food pellet (a reinforcer) falls into the cage. then it presses the lever to obtain food. if the food pellets stop, the rat presses the lever a few more times and then abandons it (extinction)
tested punishment
PP- push the lever and get electrocuted
NP- push the lever and dont receive food

Question 11

Strength of OC study

Answer 11

reliance on the experimental method in the skinner box uses controlled conditions; used to develop a possible causal relationship between two or more variables.
by manipulating the consequences of behaviour, he could measure accurately the effects.
allowed skinner to develop a cause and effect relationship between consequences of behaviour and future occurrence.

Question 12

limitation of OC study

Answer 12

it tells us little about human behaviour- only animals in experiments.
humans have free-will unlike rats. Skinner argued free will is an illusion- our behaviours are the products of external influences that guide our behaviour

also reductionist- ignores individuality, the extent to which a person will respond to the same reward differs.

Question 13

important features of CC

Answer 13

timing- if the NS cant be used to predict the UCS (it occurs after or the interval is too long) conditioning doesnt take place

extinction- Pavlov discovered that unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. after a few presentations of the CS without the UCS, it loses its ability to product the CR

spontaneous recovery- following extinction, if the UCS and CS are paired together once again, the link can be made between them quickly

stimulus generalisation- pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respons to other stimuli similar to the CS.

Question 14

strengths of behaviourism

Answer 14

• useful applications to education- child rearing
• experimental method is scientific and objective, helps to establish cause and effect
• replicable due to controlled methodology, can be repeated due to high control, reliability
• mainly quantitative data- easy to analyse

Question 15

weaknesses of behaviourism

Answer 15

reductionist- only takes nurture into account- no other influences considered

• deterministic- ignores free will
• lack of ecological validity- due to high controlled experiments- issues with generalisability
• ethical issues- not all research meets ethical guidelines
• lack of qualitative data- no thoughts or feelings known.

Question 16

What are the aims of the cognitive approach?

Answer 16

• to look at internal mental processes to understand behaviour- occur between stimulus and response
• to understand how people perceive, store, manipulate and interpret info
• study IM processes like perception, memory and problem solving

Question 17

SCHEMA

Answer 17

a cognitive framework that helps us organise + interpret info in the brain
mental shortcut when interpreting lots of info, so we focus on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs.
-we may develop stereotypes

Question 18

If internal processes cannot be directly studied then…

Answer 18

cognitive psychologists study them indirectly through inferences and theories about the mental processes that led to the observed behaviour. inferences are based on observed evidence and reasoning.

Question 19

theoretical models

Answer 19

simplified representations based on current research evidence, like the working memory model.
models= pictorial in nature, may be incomplete and are frequently modified.

Question 20

computer models

Answer 20

focus on how sensory info is coded as it passes through the system.
computer analogy: 1) info is inputted through the senses. 2) encoded into memory 3) combined with previously stored info

Question 21

example of computer model

Answer 21

memory. info stored on a hard disk= LTM

RAM (random access memory) = working memory= temporary workspace, cleared and reset when task is completed.

Question 22

what is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 22

the study of the living brain, detailed info about brain structures involved in different types of mental processing.

Question 23

cognitive neuroscience techniques

Answer 23

non-invasive neuroimaging techniques:

1) PET (Positron emission tomography)
2) fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging)

these help psychologists understand what parts of the brain become active in specific circumstances - how the brain supports cognitive activities + emotions

Question 24

example of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 24

Burnett et al. 2009
found that when people feel guilty, several brain regions are active, including the medial prefrontal cortex, an area associated with social emotions.

Question 25

2 strengths of cognitive approach

Answer 25

1) applications
- research in social cognition has helped us to see how we make errors and biases due to our schemas that influence how we interpret behaviour

-psychopathology- dysfunctional behaviour can trace back to faulty thinking processes. led to the successful treatment of depression + OCD using cognitive-based therapy

2) Scientific!
use of experimental method- allows them to collect and evaluate evidence in order to reach accurate conclusions. work is based on more than introspection which can be misleading.

Question 26

2 limitations of cognitive approach

Answer 26

1) computer models
- computers do not make errors, do not ignore available info or forget stuff already stored. humans do.

2) ignores emotions + motivation
- it doesn’t tell us why cognitive processes take place
- the lack of focus on motivational states may be explained by reliance on information-processing analogies.

Question 27

cognitive studies may lack ecological validity?

Answer 27

experiments (especially on memory) use artificial test materials (random word lists or digits)- meaningless in everyday life. can’t generalise these results to real-life situations

Question 28

Beliefs of SLT

Answer 28

• new patterns of behaviour acquired through observing behaviour
• reinforcement= informative function to observe consequences of behaviour + develop hypotheses about which ones create positive outcomes
• hypotheses serves as a guide for future behaviour

Question 29

Models

Answer 29

1) Live= parent, teacher, peer
2) symbol= media- character
these provide examples of behaviour to be observed and imitated

Question 30

Imitation

Answer 30

when a model is provided, patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired.
factors that determine whether a behaviour will be imitated: characteristics of model, observer’s perceived ability to perform it and the observed consequences.

Question 31

Identification

Answer 31

if an observer relates to a model and feels they are similar, they’re more likely to imitate their behaviour, so social learning is more likely to be effective
e.g. same-sex models

Question 32

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 32

individuals learn about the likely consequences of behaviour and adjust theirs.

Question 33

Bandura and Walter 1963

Answer 33

children who observed a model rewarded for aggressive behaviour were more likely to imitate it than a model who was punished. = vicarious reinforcement. suggests individuals dont need to experience reinforcement directly to learn. they can make judgements of the likelihood of them experiencing these outcomes themselves.

Question 34

Mediational processes

Answer 34

Bandura 1986= in order for SL to take place, the observer must form mental representations of behaviour shown + consequences.
they may display learned behaviour if expectation of positive consequences > negative consequences.

necessary in any form of observing + modelling behaviour: (these 4 are proposed by Bandura)

1) Attention= the extent to which we notice behaviour
2) retention= how well the behaviour is remembered
3) motor reproduction= ability to perform behaviour
4) motivation= the will to perform behavour

Question 35

KEY STUDY= Bandura et al 1961

Answer 35

Procedures:

• half children exposed to aggressive adult models w/ a life-sized bobo doll and half exposed to non-aggressive adult models
• aggressive model= striking it with a mallet, verbal aggression.
• after exposure, children were shown nice toys they couldnt play with. then taken to a room where among other toys, there was a bobo doll.

Findings:
-children who observed aggression imitated. those who observed non-aggressive produced virtually no aggression
-1/3 of children who observed aggression repeated verbal responses
-0 children who had observed non-aggression made verbal aggressive remarks.
Bandura and Walters 1963 follow up study- positive consequences for aggressive model= children more likely to imitate.

Question 36

Strengths of SLT

Answer 36

1) useful applications- increased understanding of criminal behaviour. Akers 1998- people more likely to engage in criminal behaviour when they are exposed to models who do it- identify with these + develop the expectation of positive consequences for their own.
2) Research support for identification- states that it is important as individual can visualise themselves in the models place and feels as if they are having the same experience. Fox and Bailenson (2009) - used computer generated virtual humans engaging in exercise or loitering. models either looked similar or dissimilar to P’s. Those who saw their similar model exercising did more exercise in 24 hours following experiment. those who viewed their virtual model loitering or a dissimilar model exercising engaged in less exercise.

Question 37

Weaknesses of SLT

Answer 37

1) A problem of causality- the cause of delinquency, may not be SL as a result of exposure to deviant role models, but the possession of deviant attitudes prior which makes them seek deviant peers. Siegel and McCormick (2006) -young people who possess deviant attitudes and values like low self-control would seek out peers with similar ones- more fun to be with.
2) A problem of complexity- it ignores other potential influences on behaviour- a child in real life is exposed to many different influences, like genetic predispositions (e.g. testosterone in boys for aggression), media portrayals, locus of control. virtually anything could have an influence on behaviour so it is difficult to show SL as one thing is the main causal influence.

Question 38

assumptions of biological approach

Answer 38

1) the mind lives in the brain= all thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis
2) genes influence behaviour
3) belief in the process of evolution- behaviour evolves through the process of evolutionary adaptation and natural selection
4) The CNS (brain + spinal chord) = important= the brain is the main focus when explaining behaviour, the origin of how the world is seen and acted upon
5) Neurochemistry important in explaining behaviour- neurotransmitters and hormones are related to behaviour and influence reactions to the environment.

Question 39

Genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 39

• we have 23 pairs of chromosomes inherited at birth
• these are our genotype and form basis for behaviour
• biological psychologists believe our genes carry instructions for particular characteristics like intelligence, personality and mental disorders
• how these characteristics develop depend on interaction with other genes and the environment.

Question 40

Twin studies

Answer 40

• used to see if certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rate (the likelihood of twins both having the disorder) between identical and non-identical twins.
• if a MZ monozygotic twin has a higher concordance rate than DZ twin (dizygotic) for musical ability, schizophrenia, love of romantic films etc- this would suggest a genetic basis.
• this is due to MZ twins sharing 100% of each other’s genes, while DZ twins share about 50%

Question 41

Genotype

Answer 41

• genetic make-up occurs at conception
• provides genetic code for how individual will develop
• dictates characteristics like eye and hair colour

Question 42

Phenotype

Answer 42

• the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment= how genes are expressed.
  e. g. environmental factors like nutrition may affect how likely someone is to achieve their potential height, which is dictated by genotype.

Question 43

psychological characteristics

Answer 43

• may be a genetic predisposition to a behaviour- may not express itself due to the environment inhibiting development.
• biological psychologists mostly accept that much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and environment (nurture)

Question 44

adaptive behaviours EVOLUTION

Answer 44

• biological psychologists may argue certain human behaviours exist as they aid survival, are adaptive.
• e.g. aggression, advantageous for ancestors (creates protection for family and resources), therefore attractive to opposite sex, making likelihood passing on gene much greater. over time the aggression gene will become more widespread.

Question 45

the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

Answer 45

NEUROCHEMISTRY= the biochemistry of the CNS. Hormones= chemicals that travel through blood.
In the brain, the transmission of chemicals is via the cerebral fluid. these are neurotransmitters, seen as important as they influence behaviour.
E.g. high levels of a neurotransmitter dopamine are related to schizophrenia.

Question 46

Strengths of biological approach

Answer 46

1) based on reliable data
- uses scientific methods, using measures that are objective like brain scanning and measuring biochemical levels.

2) real-world application
- increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat mental illnesses like depression (anti-depressants increase serotonin production)
- these drugs are a revolutionised treatment for many and can help people live a normal life.

Question 47

Weaknesses of biological approach

Answer 47

1) findings of twin studies can be interpreted as supporting nurture, not nature, which is implied by biological psychologists.
- twins and family members are exposed to same environment, behaviour could be learned through environment rather than shared genes.

2) Determinist approach- sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control. It says we are purely governed by our genetics and dont have control of our behaviour, ignoring free will.