Approaches Flashcards
biological approach
what are the key assumptions?
to understand human behaviuour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body
biological approach
what are genes?
made up of DNA and codes our physical and psychological features
inherited from parents
biological approach
what is the diff between genotype and phenotype?
geno- a persons actual genetic make-up
pheno- the way genes are expressed in the environment ( physical characteristics and traits)
biological approach
How are twin studies beneficial?
If e.g SCZ is genetic would expect all MZ twins to be concordant but not same with DZ (share 100% DNA vs 50%)
this suggests that genes don’t have such a crucial role in the trait and the trait must be mainly the result of the environment
biological approach
what is neurochemistry?
chemicals in the brain that regulate physiological functioning
biological approach
what is evolution psychology?
- our parents inherit their genes from their parents, who inherit from their parents, who inherit from their parents and so on until the begining of time
- so our genes we have inheritted are the ones that helped our distant ancestors to reproduce and pass on their genes
biological approach
what is natural selection?
where the genetic materials that are passed to future gens are selected by nature
biological approach
why are animal studies used with psychologists who take a bio approach?
we share a lot of our genetic makeup with other animals so we can learn about our behaviour by studying them
what are the assumptions of behaviourism?
- emphasises the role of environmental factors in influencing behaviour
- learn through operant + classical conditioning
- only concerned with measurable and observable behaviours
- internal mental processes cannot be measured or observed= mind is a blank slate
what are the main features of behaviourism?
- try to maintain control by using lab experiments etc
- often use animals and extrapolate findings to humans
what is classical conditioning?
learning through association
* first demonstarted by pavlov with dogs
* he found that presenting dogs with a bell before giving them food- dogs learn to associate bell with food and end up responding to the two in the same way
what are the steps to classical conditioning?
before conditioning:
food ( UCS) –> salvation ( UCR)
bell ( NS) –> no salvation ( No CR)
during conditioning:
bell+food –> salvation
after conditioning:
bell ( CS) –> salvation ( CR)
behaviourism
what is the importance of timing in classical conditioning?
precise timing of the NS-UCS paring is important in determining whether the NS becomes effective
what is operant conditioning?
skinner- animals/ humans
* learn through consequences, whether we perform an action again depends on the consequences
what are the consequnces of behaviour?
reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
* positive- adding something pleasant (receiving a reward)
* negative- removing something unpleasant ( avoiding spiders= removal of anxiety= more likely to occur again)
punishment decreases the likelihood
* positive- adding something unpleasant as a consequence
* negative- taking away something pleasant
what was skinners research in explaining operant conditioning (positive reinforcement) ?
- hungry rats inside a cage would move around= accidentally press down on leaver= rewarded with a food pallet ( positive reinforcement)
- through this the rat learns every time it presses leaver they will get rewarded with food likelihood of behaviour has been increased
- negative- shown when the rat learnt to press down on the leaver to avoid the unpleasant consequence of an electric shock
what are the main assumptions of the social learning theory?
bandura- agrees with behaviourists that we learn through experiences within environment
* the two conditioning alone cannot explain- we also learn through observing and imitating others
internal mental functions should be considered when explaining behaviour
SLT
what is vicarious reinforcement?
learning through observing models performing behaviours- through this we learn HOW to perform the behaviours and are able to see the consequences
* if behaviour is rewarded= more likely to imitate
* punished= less likely to imitate
SLT
who is a role model?
a person whom the observer identifies with, this person usually has high status, is attractive or is similar to the observer e.g in terms of age or gender
SLT
what is identification?
a process where an observer desires to be associated with a particular person or group because the person/group possess certain desirable characteristics
SLT
What is modeling from the perspective of a model and the observer?
observer- imitating the behaviour of a role model
model- the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by the observer
SLT
what is the role of cognitive mediators/mediational processes?
there are cognitive processes involved in learning- these factors mediate/intervene with the learning process to determine the outcome e.g whether a behaviour is learned or not
SLT- whether behaviour is learnt
what are the first two mediational processes?
- attention- observer must have paid attention to the models actions
- retention- the observer must remember the models action by creating a mental representation of the action
SLT- whether behaviour is actually imitated by observer
what are the last two mediational processes?
- motor reproduction- the ability of the observer to physically perform the behaviour
- motivation- the reason for the observer to imitate, reward or punishment, for their behaviour
SLT
what was Banduras research aim into vicarious reinforcement?
- controlled experiment aiming to investigate if social behaviours can be acquired by observation and reinforcement (VR)
SLT
what was the procedure used?
- independent groups design used 36 girls + 36boys aged 3-6 years old
- they watched a female or male model
- the IV= type of model ( aggressive, non-aggressive or no model at all ( control) be aggressive to bobo doll
- all condtions were then put in a room with aggressive and non aggressive toys and were observed through a one-way mirror ( 5 second intervals
- other variation- children either saw models aggression get rewarded or punished or no specific consequence ( control)
SLT
what was found in the different conditions of banduras research?
- children in aggressive condition made more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control
- in the variation of model behaviour being rewarded or punished- those who were in the reward and control condition imitated more aggressive behaviours of model then the punishement condition children
SLT
what were the conclusions of banduras bobo doll study?
children learn aggression through observing and imitating
however boys were more likely to imitate the same-sex models than girls- evidence for girls imitating is not strong
what are the main assumptions of the coognitive approach?
- internal mental processes can AND should be studied scientifically
- although they cannot be directly measured we can scientifically measure them (memory, perception etc) indirectly through inferences
- the mind and brain are two seperate things
cognitive approach
what are infernces?
measuring external behaviours and assuming what internal mental processes are behind them
cognitive approach
what’s a schema?
mental framework of beliefs and expectaions that influence cognitive processing and develop from experience
* are basically packages of ideas and info that help us interpret incoming info recieved by the cognitive system
* these develop and become more advanced as we age e.g as a baby we have simple motor schema for behaviours like sucking and grasping but as an adult these become more detailed and sophisticated e.g having schema for what school is like etc
cognitive approach
why are schemas useful?
they enable us to process a lot of info quickly
* this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
* BUT - they are prone to errors leading us to incorrectly process/percieve something= possible incorrect responses
help cognitive psychologists to undertstand IMP’s
what are theoretical models?
abstract e.g the multistore memory model and working memory model
help cognitive psychologists to undertstand IMP’s
what are computer models?
concrete- based on the programmes of a computer seeing if such instructions produce similar output to humans
it they do could suggest that smilar processes occur in the mind e.g ai
cognitive approach
what is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
cognitive approach
what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?
- mapping brain areas to specfific cognitive functions has had a long history in psychology
- its recently though that advances in brain imiging techniques e.g fMRI and PET scans have enabled scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
- examples include resarch finding that there are differnt areas of the brain when ppl are compeleting visual tasks vs auditory tasks
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
The unconscious motives, childhood experiences, determined behaviour and the tripartite personality
psychodynamic
What is the role of the unconscious?
A vast collection of biological drives and instincts which govern our behaviour and personality
* it also contains memories that we have pushed to be forgotten but can resurface into conscious through dreams etc
There are 3 levels of the consciousness:
1. Conscious- what we are aware of
2.pre conscious- memories and thoughts that are currently not in the conscious but are able to be accessed
3. Unconscious
psychodynamic
What is the structure of personality
Tripartite personality
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego
psychodynamic
What is the Id?
The first part of the tripartite personality
* operates on the pleasure principle pushing us to get what we want
* this makes it irrational as it focuses on the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied no matter what the consequence is (demands instant gratification)
* this causes conflict with the superego
psychodynamic
What is the ego?
the second part of the tripartite personality
*operates on the reality principle- mediating the wants of the id and superego to reduce conflict
* has no concept of right or wrong
psychodynamic
What is the superego?
the third part of the tripartite personality
* operates on the morality principle- representing moral standards of a child’s same sex parent + punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt
* its main function is to control the ids impulses
the two subsystems in the superego?
- the conscience- punishes the ego through causing guilt
- the ideal self-an imaginary picture of how you ought to be
psychodynamic
What are defence mechanisms?
Mechanisms that prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas which may lead to anxiety
* operates on a conscious level
* some are unhealthy as they are often based around distorting reality as a long term solution and this is unhealthy
psychodynamic
What is repression?
Forcing a distressing memory/thought out of the conscious mind and into the unconscious
psychodynamic
What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
Küber-Ross- argues that denial is a stage of grief- ppl refusing to accept that a loved one has passed
psychodynamic
What is displacement?
Transferring feelings from the true source of a distressing emotion onto a substitute target
may involve satisfying an impulse with a substitute target
psychodynamic
what are the psychosexual stages of development?
five development stages that all children pass through- each stage is characterised by a conflict, must be resovled to pass to the next stage= outcome determines future development
failure to do so = fixation
psychodynamic - psychosexual stages of development
what is stage 1?
oral stage ( birth- 1)
* libido= centred in baby’s mouth- gets satisfaction from putting things in their mouth
* oral stimulation could lead to fixation in later life if conflict is not resolved
* oral personalities engage in oral behaviour when under stress = smokers, nail biters etc
psychodynamic - psychosexual stages of development
what is stage 2?
anal stage ( 1-3)
* libdo= focuses on the anus, child getting pleasure from witholding and expelling faeces
* this type of conflict tends to come to head in potty training (adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate)
* harsh or early potty training= anal retentive personality (hate mess, punctual, can be stubborn and tight fisted with money)
* liberal potty training= anal expulsive personality (want to share things, messy, disorganised and rebellious)
psychodynamic - psychosexual stages of development
what is stage 3?
phallic stage ( 3-6)
* libdo= genitals, masturbation is the new source of pleasure
* child becomes aware of anatomical sex diffs = conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, jealousy and fear resulting in:
1. oedipus complex ( boys)
2. electra complex ( girls)
psychodynamic- psychosexual stages of development
what is the oedipus complex?
boys develop a desire for their mother and have to get rid of their father in order to persue this but fear if their father finds out they will get castrated = castration anxiety
* to resolves- boys identify with their father (masculine dad-type behaviours)
* consequence= boy takes on the male gender role and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego
psychodynamic- psychosexual stages of development
what is the electra complex?
girls develop a desire for their fathers but realises that she does not have a penis = penis envy ( wishing to be a boy)
this is resolved by her repressing her desire and wishes for a baby instead + blames her mother for her castrated state= tension
* girl then represses her feelings and identifies with her mother to take on the female gender role ( identification)
psychodynamic- psychosexual stages of development
what is stage 4?
latency stage (7- puberty)
no further psychosexual development takes place- dormant libdo
* child’s energy is chanelled into developing new skills and knowledge (defence mechanisms)
psychodynamic- psychosexual stages of development
what is stage 5?
genital stage ( puberty- adulthood)
sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
this is when adolesecnts explore sexually- successful resolution of settling down in loving relationship in 20s
* sexual instict is directed to hetrosexual pleasure rather than self like phalic stage
* consequence- difficulty forming hetrosexual relationships
person- centred approach
what does the humanistic approach believe?
humans are self-determining and have free will
people are still influenced by external and internal factors but are also active agents involved in determining their own development
what is meant by maslows hierarchy of needs?
a five levelled hierarchical sequence of basic psychological needs ( hunger) that need to be satisfied before higher psychological needs ( self-actualistaion) can be achieved
what are the bottom four levels called?
deficiency needs- because we do not feel anything if they are not met but become anxious if they are not
NOT EVERYONE CAN DO THIS
what is self actualistaion?
the ability to develop and achieve our full potential- essential part of what it is to be human
personal growth is concerned with changing and developing as a person to become goal-oriented etc
the self
what is the ideal self?
an idea of the person you want to be
the self
what is meant by self concept?
how an individual sees themselves
the self
what is incongruence?
self image is different to ideal self
the self
what is congruence and its importance?
self image is similar to the ideal self
for personal growth to happen self concept needs to be similar to ideal self
the self- rogers
what leads to a state of incongrunce?
if the gap between the sleves is too big- this lead to negative feelings of self worth making self actualistaion impossible
the self - rogers
how can incongrunece be dealt with?
by using client-centred therapy (counselling)
many issues we experince as adults stem from childhood specifically unconditional positive regard from our parents
the self - rogers
what do some parents do and how does this affect a child?
they set boundries to their love e.g i will only love you if you do this
this stores up psychological problems for child in future
what is counselling?
client- centred therapy
a type of treatment done via helplines etc
* the client is already familiar with their own condition and are encouraged by a counseller to discover their own solutions rather than being instructed on what to do= free will
the self - rogers
what do therapys aim to do?
- increase feelings of self worth
- reduce level of incongruence
- done through offering unconditional positive regard
origins of psych
what is science?
OBJECTIVITY
- building knowledge via controlled, systematic and objective investigation
- aiming to discover general laws
origins of psych
who was wundt?
first psychologist+ first to open the first ever psych lab
his work gave birth to the development of scientific psych- moving away from its early phisiological roots
origins of psych
how did wundt sytematically study the mind?
- aim= analyse the nature of human consciousness using intrespection- the process of observing and examining your own conscious thoughts and emotions
origins of psych
what was the procedure of wundt?
- controlled experiment
- researchers had to report back what they felt and their analysis e.g when they were given a ticking metronome
- trained them so they could give detail
origins of psych
what is the link between wundt and structuralism?
isolating the structure of consciousness by analysing the basic elements of thoughts and sensations
after discovering the way that these segments fit together in complex structures
wundts aims - record thoughts and sensations and analsye them into their constituent elements
origins of psych
what are the 4 ways wundt influence psychs development as a science?
- use of controlled cocnditions
- use of systematic procedures
- breaking down ones psychological processes into competent parts
- paved the way for later controlled research and study of mental processes
what is the emergence of psych as a science?
behaviourism- watson + skinner proposed that psych should focus on measuring only what can be observed and objectively measured ( actual behaviour)
cognitvie- digital revloution re-focused psych on the mind in a way that is more scientific
biological- tech led to this= physiological processs could now be objectively measured
What are concordance rates?
The extent to which twins share the same characteristics
What was skinners research in explaining operant conditioning (punishment)?
- at bottom of the box was an electric grid that could give shocks
- every time rat pressed leaver they would get an electric shock= learn not to press the leaver (likelihood of behaviour occurring again has been decreased)
