Approaches

Question 1

Wilheim Wundt

Answer 1

-First perosn to call himself a ‘psychologist’.
-He said ‘ALL aspects of human nature including the human mind & behaviour can be studied scientifically.
-His method was called introspection: first systematic experimental attempt to study mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images & sensations.

Question 2

What is a ‘scientific approach’?

Answer 2

Based on 2 approaches:
1. All behaviour is seen as being caused (determined).
2. If behaviour is determined, it should’ve be possible to predict how humans will behave in diff conditions (predictability).

Refers to use of investigative methods:
-objective: not influenced by personal feelings in considering & representing facts.
-systematic: done or acting according to a fixed plan (methodical).
-replicable: with ability to reproduce.

Question 3

Introspection

Answer 3

-looking inwards.

Method of studying mind.
-trained his graduate researchers to make personal observations that were biased & based on experience.
E.g. reflective of their working mind.
-based around sensory perceptions & attention.
E.g. ppts would be exposed to standard stimulus & asked to report sensations.

structuralism: stimuli that Wundt & his Co workers experienced were always presented in the same order & same instructions issued to all ppts.

Question 4

Evaluation of Introspection

Answer 4

:) systematic & well controlled.
:) excluded extraneous variables.
:) started foundation of psychology as a science.

:( not credible.
:( relies on someone else’s account.
:( bias.
:( unscientific today.
:( Griffiths (1994) asked gambles to think about whilst playing a fruit machine to see if their thought processes were more irrational. & they were.

Question 5

Psych over time: 17-19th century

Answer 5

Psychology is a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy. If psych has a definition in this time, it is as experimental philosophy.

Question 6

Psych over time: 1879

Answer 6

Wundt opens the 1st experimental psychology lab in Germany, & psych emerges as a distinct discipline in its own right.

Question 7

Psych over time: 1900s

Answer 7

Freud emphasised influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour (the psychodynamic approach).
He also develops his person-cantered therapy psychoanalysis, & shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.

Question 8

Psych over time: 1913

Answer 8

John B. Watson writes psychology as the behaviourist views it & layer with B.F. Skinner, establishes the behaviourist approach.
The psychodynamic & behaviourist approaches dominate psychology for 1st half of the 20th century.

Question 9

Psych over time: 1950s

Answer 9

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow develops the humanistic approach the so called ‘third force’ in psychology, rejecting the behaviourist & psychodynamic view that human behaviour is determined by outside factors.
Humanistic psychologists emphasise importance of self-determination & free will.

Question 10

Psych over time: 1950s

Answer 10

The introduction of the digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor for the operations of the human mind.
The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psych but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations.

Question 11

Psych over time: 1960s

Answer 11

Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory.
This approach draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning, providing a bridge, between the newly established cognitive approach & traditional behaviourism.

Question 12

Psych over time: 1980s onwards

Answer 12

The biological approach begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology.
This is due to advances in tech that increased understanding of the brain & biological processes.

Question 13

Psych over time: Eve of 21st century

Answer 13

Towards the end of the last century, cognitive neurosciences emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together the cognitive & biological approaches.
Cognitive neurosciences investigated how biological structures influence mental states.

Question 14

1900s Behaviourists

Answer 14

-By 20th century, value of introspection was questioned, notably by Watson who said the data was very subjective so it’s difficult to establish general laws.
-Skinner proposed that for psych to be scientific, the experiments should be observed objectively & measured.

Question 15

1950s Cognitive approach

Answer 15

Digital revolution meant new gen of psychologists compared studying the mind to studying a computer & tested predictions about memory with experiments which insured the study was legitimate & disciplined.

Question 16

1980s Biological approach

Answer 16

-Researchers have taken advantage of advances in tech to investigate psychological process.
E.g. use of sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI & EEG to study live activity in the brain.
-New methods like genetic testing have helped understand relationship between genes & behaviour.

Question 17

Evaluation of Emergence of psychology as a science - Modern psychology

Answer 17

:) Scientific - psych has the same aims as natural sciences (describe, understand, predict & control behaviour).
Learning approaches use lab studies to investigate in a controlled & unbiased way.

Question 18

Evaluation of Emergency of psychology as a science - Subjective data

Answer 18

:( Not all approaches use objective methods.
Humanistic approach uses individuals & subjective experiences.
Psychodynamic approach makes use of unrepresentative samples.
& Humans are active ppts & respond to demand characteristics.
Therefore, a scientific approach may not always be possible.

Question 19

Focus on the environment

Answer 19

Learning approach states that the environment shapes our behaviour and we are born “tabula rasa” (clean slate).
Not interested in biological explanations.

Question 20

Focus on scientific methods

Answer 20

Learning approach says behaviour should be studied in a scientific way by isolating & studying specific actions.
Strong focus on observable events.

Question 21

What do learning approaches say we learn through?

Answer 21

-Imitation: social learning theory.
-Consequences for actions: operant conditioning.
-Association: classical conditioning.

Question 22

How does Classical conditioning work?

Answer 22

-association
-passive

-Occurs when a neutral stimulus which wouldn’t normal cause a response is associated with an unconditioned stimulus whcih naturally cause a reflex. -This is called an unconditioned response.
-The NS is associated with the UCS so it causes the UCR to occur even when presented with the NS only.
-The NS is now a conditioned stimulus & it causes a conditioned response.

Question 23

Classical conditioning - Pavlov’s dogs

Answer 23

Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if the sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given the food.
They learnt to associate the sound of the bell (NS) with the food (UCS) & produce salivation every time they were presented with the sound.

Thus, this shows how NS can created a conditioned response through association.

Question 24

Operant conditioning

Answer 24

Skinner suggested learning is an active process whereby humans & animals operate on the environment.
Behaviour is shaped by consequences.

Question 25

Reinforcement

Answer 25

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future.

Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
E.g. green stamp for answering a question.

Negative reinforcement: occurs when you remove something unpleasant by performing a behaviour.
E.g. avoiding annoying sound by not wearing a seatbelt.

Question 26

Punishment

Answer 26

A consequence of behaviour that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future.

Positive punishment: receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour.
E.g. detention for not doing homework.

Negative punishment: removal of something pleasant after a behaviour.
E.g. confiscation of phone.

Question 27

Skinner’s rats

Answer 27

-Designed cages called Skinner’s boxes where everytime a rat activated a lever, they were rewarded with food. The rat overtime learnt this. (PR)
-Rat would be electric shocked and when he pushed the lever, the uncomfortableness would end. (NR)

Question 28

Determinism

Answer 28

Idea that people are controlled & their behaviour is shaped by internal & external factors. Most psychologists lean towards this idea.

environmental determinism: belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward & punishment) that we cannot control.

Question 29

Limitation of Behaviourist approach - Environmental determinism

Answer 29

Sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Ignored internal factors and assumed that external factors are the cause of everything & assumes do not have free will.
Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion.

Ignores influence of conscious decision making processes in behaviour (cognitive approach).

Question 30

Strength of the Behaviourist approach: Well-controlled research

Answer 30

Behaviourists focussed on measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings.
Removed extraneous variables and effectively established cause & effect.
(Skinner & reinforcement).
Animals do not have demand characteristics & weren’t exposed to environment.
Improves internal validity.

Suggests behaviourists have scientific credibility.

Counter: ignores important influence of learning - human thought & private mental processes. Too oversimplified.

Question 31

Limitation of the Behaviourist approach: Ethical issues

Answer 31

Skinners rats were bred in captivity and purposely kept underweight so that they would be hungry & were kept in small, captive, harsh spaces.

Violation of animal ethical guidelines.

Question 32

Strength of Behaviourist approach: Real-world application

Answer 32

Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in i situations (prisons & psych wards).
Work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens (secondary reinforces) that can be exchanged for privileges. (primary reward)

Increases the value of behaviourist approach as it has widespread application.

Question 33

Social learning theory (SLT): The basics

Answer 33

-Process of how we learn through observation & imitation of role models.
-Not all behaviour is learnt through conditioning.
-Mix of behaviourist & cognitive approach.

Question 34

SLT: Stages of Observational learning

Answer 34

1. Modelling: RM models behaviour.
2. Identification: observer must identify with RM & recognise it’s someone they wish to be like.
3. Observation: observer notices behaviour & notes.
4. Imitation: observer tries behaviour themselves (usually anticipating reward.

Question 35

SLT: Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 35

Not ALL behaviour is imitated, depends on how behaviour is enforced.

-RM behaviour punished: less likely to imitate. vicarious punishment
-RM behaviour rewarded: more likely to imitate. vicarious rewards

Thus, observer learns behaviour & consequences for behaviour.

Question 36

SLT: Meditational processes

Answer 36

Bandura said SLT involves conditions and making u formed decisions & it is a voluntary process.

A -attention (noting behaviour)
R -retention (remembering it)
R -reproduction (performing ability)
M -motivation (rewarded/punished)

Question 37

SLT: Identification

Answer 37

-People (esp children) are likely to imitate who they identify with (gender,age,ethnicity).
-A person becomes a RM if they’re seen to possess similar characteristics as the person & are attractive or have a high status.
-Don’t have to be physically present.

Question 38

Study 1: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) - Imitating RMs

Answer 38

Aim:
to find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model & less aggressive behaviour if exposed to non aggressive. Also to see if sex of RM & child made difference.

Procedure:
-Used equal no. of boys & girls (36) & measured how aggressive they were on 5 point claw by nursery teachers to put in groups.
-Children playing in rooms where (1) aggressive model comes in & pushes/punches/swears at bobo doll & hits with mallet, (2) non-aggressive model played quietly alongside kids.
-Children toys were taken away.

Results:
-G1 kids were aggressive with bobo doll in same way adult RM Ws.
-In G2, & control group, around 70% children had score of 0 for aggression.
-Male RM had bigger influence than female.

Conclusions:
-Behaviour can be learned by imitation even without reinforcement.
-Male RM more influential - cultural expectations.
-Verbal aggression was sex-typed, girls imitated women & boys imitated men. Imitate who they identify with.

Question 39

Study 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963a) - Replication, using filmed RMs

Answer 39

Aim:
-Find out if kids become more aggressive when exposed to aggressive RM in film/less realistic cartoon than live.
-Test popular idea that filmed aggressions is cathartic. (Makes calm).

Procedure:
-Same as original with extra condition of where children watched film where female adult model was dressed as cartoon cat following script.

Results:
-Conteol group carried out half as much aggression.
-No significant difference with live/filmed/cartoon models.

Conclusions:
-Concluded children imitate filmed and live aggression the same way.
-Watching filmed violence is not cathartic & encourages more aggression.

Question 40

Study 3: Bandura (1965) - Replication, with rewards & punishments

Answer 40

Aim:
-To find out if children are more likely to imitate an RM who’s rewarded & less likely to imitate RM being punished.
-See if children are more likely to imitate when offered rewards.

Procedure:
-Basic procedure is same as original.
-Model “Rocky” went through scripted routine of aggressive behaviour.
-In reward condition, he was offered sweets & praised for “superb aggressive performance”.
-In punishment condition, he was called a “big bully” and hit with a rolled up newspaper.
-No consequences condition = nothing happened.
-Children asked to “show what rocky did” & if there was imitative aggression, they were rewarded. positive incentive condition.

Results:
-Model reward condition produced about same imitation from girls & boys as the no consequence condition.
-Model punished produced much less imitation, esp in girls (0.5).
-After positive incentive, imitation increased across all conditions.

Conclusions:
-Children less likely to imitate punished RMs. However, no consequences condition shows behaviour doesn’t have to be punished/rewarded to be imitated.
-When offered incentives, children who watched model be punished show they learnt aggressive behaviour.
-Girls are more restrained with threats of punishment.

Question 41

Strength of SLT: Recognises cognitive factors

Answer 41

-Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own as humans and animals can store info about human behaviours & make judgements of appropriate times to perform certain actions.

Suggests SLT provides comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising meditational processes.

Counter: little reference to influence of biological factors. Bandura thought learning was completely determined by environment. Recent research shows importance of mirror neurones in brain which allow to emphasise and imitate others.

Question 42

Limitation of SLT: Contrived lab studies

Answer 42

All evidence is based on lab studies.
-Ignores demand characteristics.
-Children could simply have thought it was expected to strike the doll.
-Lacks ecological validity due to unnatural artificial study causing unnatural behaviour which isn’t applicable to all.

Research may not entirely show how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Question 43

Strength of SLT: Real-world application

Answer 43

Applied to real world behaviours.
-Explains cultural differences in behavuour.
-SLT principles (ARRM) can account for how children learn from those around them & how media transmits cultural norms.

Question 44

Evaluation of SLT: Reciprocal determinism

Answer 44

-In the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment but we also exert and influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform.
-Suggests we have free will (contrasts with behaviourist approach).

Question 45

The cognitive approach: Ideologies

Answer 45

Compares the human mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way we process info.

Input -> process -> output
(environment, coding/store, response)

Differences:
-humans add meaning to what they input (interpretations).
-computers ALWAYS pay attention.
-direct input through keyboard.

Focused on how internal processes (thoughts) affect behaviour; memory, problem solving, language etc.

Question 46

The cognitive approach: Basic assumptions

Answer 46

-Argues internal processes can and should be studied scientifically (diff to behaviourist).
-Studied processes indirectly using inferences - the process used to draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.

E.g.
memory study -> results -> capacity is 7+/-2 (inference)

Question 47

The cognitive process: The role of the schema

Answer 47

-Schema is packages of ideas & info developed through experience. They act as framework for the interpretation of upcoming info.
E.g. you have a schema for a chair which helps you understand it’s for sitting in, helps you respond to it appropriately.
-Babies have simple motor schema for innate behaviours like sucking.
-As we grow, schemas become more detailed & sophisticated giving mental representations.
-Helps process lots of info quickly & stops being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.

Can lead to perceptual errors. (forget things & make up things).
E.g. you hear a dog bark outside at night & see a firework, then remember dogs can be scared of fireworks, then you bring the dog inside.

Question 48

The cognitive process: The role of a schema - Bugelski & Alampov

Answer 48

Schemas can distort interpretations of sensory info.
-Bugelski & Alampov - The Rat-man: 2 groups of ppts shown a sequence of pictures & asked to describe what they saw.
1 group saw pictures of people then shown image of rat man. They saw the man with glasses.
2nd group saw pictures of animals & shown ratman. They saw the rat. I’m

Question 49

The cognitive approach: Theoretical & computer models

Answer 49

-One important theoretical model is the information processing approach which suggests that info flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages. (MSM).
-This info is based on how computers function but a computer model would involve programming a computer to see if instructions produce a similar output to humans. If so, suggested that similar processes go on in human mind.
-Helped create artificial intelligence

Question 50

The cognitive approach: The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 50

-Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
-1860s Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (now Broca’s area) could permanently impair speech production.
-Last 25 years, we use fMRI & PET scans to observe & describe neurological basis of mental processes.
E.g. Buckner & Peterson found that diff types of LTM can be found on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex.
E.g. the central executive in the WMM is thought to reside in similar area (Braver et al 1997).

-Scanning techs have also proved uself in establishing neurological basis of mental disorders.
E.g. link between the parahippocampal gyrus & OCD. Appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions.
-Focus of this has expanded recently to include use of computer generated models to read the brain.
E.g. ‘brain fingerprinting’. & potentially in future analysis of brain wave patterns of EWT to determine lying or not.

Question 51

Strength of The cognitive approach: Scientific methods

Answer 51

Uses objective & scientific methods.
-highly controlled so researched can infer cognitive processes at work.
-use of lab studies to produce reliable data.
-& emergence of cog neuroscience enabled 2 fields of bio & cognitive psychology to enhance scientific basis of study.
Credible basis.

Counter: rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can suffer from being too abstract & theoretical un nature. Similarly, research studies of mental processes often use artificial stimuli (memory) which is unrepresentative of everyday experience.
Lacks external validity.

Question 52

Strength of The cognitive approach: Real life application

Answer 52

Has practical application.
-important contribution in field of AI & development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots).
-advances into how we live in the future.
-principles applied to treatment of depression & improved reliability of EWT.

Supports value of cognitive approach.

Question 53

Limitation of The cognitive approach: Machine reductionism

Answer 53

Based on machine reductionism.
-similarities between human mind & computer (inputs, outputs etc).
-this criticises analogy as it ignores the influence of human emotion & motivation on cognitive system & effect on ability to process info.
E.g. research has found memory can be affected by emotional factors (anxiety on EWT).

Suggests machine reductionism may weaken validity of cognitive approach.

Question 54

Evaluation of The cognitive approach: Soft Determinism

Answer 54

-The cognitive approach is founded in soft determinants (the view that human behaviour can be determined by internal & external factors but we can also exert free will).
-The had determinism view says all behaviour is determined by factors other than will (genes & conditioning).

Question 55

The biological approach: Basic assumptions

Answer 55

-Suggests everything psychological is at first biological so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures & processes in body.
-Mind lives in brain so all thoughts & feelings have a physical basis.
-Can study this by; lab experiments (animals), brain scanning techs, case studies of brain damaged people & twin studies.

Question 56

The biological approach: The genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 56

-Believe that psychological characteristics can be inherited just like physical ones.
-Twin studies can be used to investigate if certain characteristics have a genetic basis.
-Achieved by analysing concordance rates (the extent to which twins share the same characteristic). 0-1, 0 is no concordance & 1 is perfect concordance.
-If a characteristic (musical ability) is genetic, we’d expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant.
-Whereas the same wouldn’t be true for non identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes.

In both cases, the environment is assumed to be constant.

genotype: actual genes you inherit from parents.
phenotype: combination of genes and environment (inheritance & presentation).

Question 57

The biological approach: Neurons + nervous system/ the brain/ hormones

Answer 57

Neurons & nervous system:
-assume experiences & behaviours are caused by activity in nervous system.
-NS is specialised network of cells in body & primary communication system:
-> collect, process & respond.
-> coordinate working of diff organs & cells.

The brain:
-2 hemispheres (left & right) - 4 loves (occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal).
-cerebral cortex (85% of the brain; loads of neurones).

Hormones:
-chemicals released into bloodstream through endocrine system.
-glands produce hormones.
-CNS says hormones required & they are secreted into blood & travel to target cells.
-causes psychological response.

E.g. Carre et al (2006) studied Canadian ice hockey team over course of season.
Found evidence of a surge in levels of testosterone whenever team played in their home stadium, suggesting hormone energised players to defend home territory.

Question 58

The biological approach: Neurotransmitters

Answer 58

Messages travel through the NS due to neurotransmitters: chemicals that determine whether or not an electrical impulse.
-causes messages to travel around the body.

-all physical actions are a result of messages around body.
-we can link imbalances of neurotransmitters to certain mental disorders.

-dopamine influences movement, learning, attention & emotion.
-examples of malfunction is schizophrenia & under supply Parkinson’s disease.

-serotonin affects mood, hunger, sleep & arousal.
-examples of malfunctions is under supply depression.

Question 59

The biological approach: Evolution, natural selection & sexual selection

Answer 59

Evolution:
-process by which living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms during trye history of the earth.
-adaptation: how inherited characteristics in organisms change from gen to gen.
-evolutionary basis for survival.

Natural selection:
-the way some characteristics may aid survival.
-organisms that display characteristics that don’t aid survival don’t get to reproduce.
-these bad genes don’t get passed on & will die out.
-survival of the fittest.

Sexual selection:
-a characteristic that makes an individual more attractive to mate with.
-made competition: males compete with each other for female.
-female choice: males try impress & she chooses to mate.
Buss (1989) found across cultures, women tend to desire resources & men desire physical attraction.

Question 60

Strength of The biological approach: Real world application

Answer 60

Has real world application.
-increased understanding of neurochemical processes is associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders.
-e.g. promoted treatment of clinical depression with antidepressants which increase levels of neurotransmitter seratonin in at synapses in brain.
Means depressed people can manage condition.

Counterpoint: Ciprani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressants & found wide variations in effectiveness. Although most were more effective than placebos, researched concluded the effects were ‘’mainly modest”.
-Challenges value of approach as it suggests brain chem alone can’t account for all cases of (depression).

Question 61

Strength of The biological approach: Scientific methods

Answer 61

Uses scientific methods for investigation:
-uses precise & objective methods.
-fMRIs & EEGs.
-accurately measured physiological & neural processes that are unbiased.

Means data is objective & reliable.

Question 62

Limitation of The biological approach: Biological determinism

Answer 62

Deterministic theory.
-sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control.
-but we can see the phenotype is influenced by environment.
-even identical twins with the same genes don’t act and think the same.
-“could we rule out criminal behaviour in the claim they have a ‘crime gene’?”

Suggests view is too simplistic & ignores mediating environmental effects.

Question 63

Limitation of The biological approach: Karl Popper

Answer 63

Argues you cant falsify the theory of natural selection as we cannot show evolution happening & it can only be deduced.

However, others claim principles are supported by fossil records (dinosaurs into birds).

Question 64

The psychodynamic approach: 2 main beliefs

Answer 64

1. Childhood (0-5) has a huge effect on later life & can influence personality, relationships & general mental health.
2. We have an unconscious part of our mind containing thoughts, feelings, memories, & desires we cannot express.

Question 65

The psychodynamic approach: The role of the unconscious

Answer 65

Freud suggested:
-part of mind we are aware of is our conscious mind (tip of the iceberg) which is our current thoughts.
-most of mind is unconscious- storehouse of biological drives & instincts which influence our behaviour & personality.
-preconscious/subconscious are thoughts/memories that are accessible but not currently aware of.
-unconscious mind also contains repressed thoughts that are threatening/disturbing (forgotten).

Recognised 2 important urges:
1. Eros (lipidos): life instinct, manifesting asexuality.
2. Thanatos: death instinct, manifesting as aggression & destructiveness.

Question 66

The psychodynamic approach: Freudian slips & Dreams

Answer 66

Freudian slips:
-unconscious comes out & repressed feelings come out as “misspoken words”.
-glimpse into unconscious.
-tells about ‘hidden’ parts of our mind.

Freud said that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”:
-believed they were the window/direct view to it.
-believed that things in our unconscious can cause issues if not explained.
-would analyse his patients dreams to interpret their unconscious.

manifest content: what was in the dream.
latent content: what was symbolised/represented in the unconscious.

Believed ‘unacceptable’ thought’s were hidden in unconscious, (ie. sex).

Question 67

The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - id, superego & ego

Answer 67

3 parts of personality (angel/superego, person/ego, & devil/id).

Superego:
-MORALITY principle.
-develops around 3-5 years.
-strives for perfection (learns from parents).
-only senses right & wrong.
-guilt

Id:
-babies are born with it.
-fully unconscious.
-instinctive (needs come first).
-primitive/animalistic mind (psychic & sexualised energy / libido).
-selfish.
-PLEASURE principle.

Ego:
-“I”.
-conscious & rational.
-develops around 18 months.
-sometimes allows id but aware you don’t always get what you want.
-REALITY principle.
-seeks to satisfy both id & superego.
-“ego-strength” is how well ego cities with these forces (chocolate cake).

Question 68

The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - imbalances

Answer 68

-one may dominate the other 2.
-this affects personality.
E.g. driven by the id: more selfish, impulsive & reckless.
E.g. driven by the superego: more moral, perfectionist, scared, judgmental.

Question 69

The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms: What are they?

Answer 69

Coping strategy to protect yourself from being exposed to vulnerable or harmful situations.
AKA: unconscious strategies the ego uses to manage conflict between id & superego.
E.g. projection, denial, anger, age regression etc.

Role:
-protect conscious mind by preventing us from experiencing something you’ll find unpleasant / traumatic.
-> pushing a thought out of conscious.
-> applying thought to someone or something else.

Question 70

The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms - anxiety & repression/denial/displacement

Answer 70

Anxiety:
-ego either experiences or anticipates anxiety & DM is activated.
-anxiety can be triggered if ego feels it’ll fail to meet both pleasure & moral demand of id & superego.

Repression (forgetting):
-pushing unwanted memories, truths, feelings & emotions into unconscious mind.
-unconscious process.

Denial:
-refusal to accept truth.
-conscious process.

Question 71

The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms - projection, regression & reduction formation

Answer 71

Projection:
-saying that the unacceptable thoughts are someone else’s.

Regression:
-in order to cope, the mind regressed back to a previous stage of life.
-ie. when feeling anxious, you may act child like (suck thumb, want your caregiver).

Reaction formation:
-consciously feeling or thinking the very opposite of what you unconsciously feel & therefor behave how you think is acceptable.
-e.g. homophobics aroused by homosexual video is more than heterosexual.

Question 72

Evaluation of Defence mechanisms

Answer 72

:( Lack of test ability/falsifiability as they’re unconscious processes.
:( Can only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts.
:( Gender differences & Cultural differences.

:) Real world application (forgetting due to denial).
:) Intuitive appeal - most people appreciate the idea of denial, repression & displacement.
:) Useful in therapy to identify issues.

Question 73

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages

Answer 73

-Freud believed the first few years (0-5) of a child’s life were vital in personality & development morally.
-5 stages are: oral, anal, plahllic, latency & genital.

-Believed sexual energy (libido) is present since birth.
-Each energy focuses on a different body area in each stage.
-That stage is where we get most pleasure from.

Question 74

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Oral stage

Answer 74

-Birth-18 months old.
-mouth is focus of pleasure.
-feeding/sucking thumb/dummy’s.
-id is in control.
-fixation can occur in this stage if a child is weaned too early or late.

-fixation can lead to overeating, talking too much, chewing pens, smoking etc as an adult.
-constant need of stimulation in mouth.
-weaned too soon = pessimistic/sarcastic personality.
-weaned too late = needy, admiring, gullible personality.

Question 75

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Anal stage

Answer 75

-2-3 year olds, potty training.
-anus is main focus.
-if this stage isn’t resolved, it’ll lead to an anal character.
-parents might be too strict or lenient causing fixation.

If fixation occurs, there’s 2 types of personalities:
Anal expulsive character: if the child potty trains easily (messy, creative, reckless, disorganised character).
Anal retentive character: if the child struggles to train (careful, precise, stubborn, obsessively clean character).

Question 76

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Phallic stage

Answer 76

-occurs from age 4.
-focus of pleasure is genitals.

-Oedipus complex (boys), finds mother sexually attractive, unconsciously loves mother & wants to hurt & compete with father.
-Electra complex (girls) (by Jung), girls love their father, hopes they receive his penis. penis envy & upset with mother for castrating.

Can overcome this by getting over love & identifying with their father & becomes masculine.
Can overcome replaces desire for penis with baby.

Question 77

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Latency stage

Answer 77

-age 6 - puberty.
-no focus on sexual drive.
-children form same-sex friendships.
-focus on school & sports.
-fixations & issues from other stags are repressed.

Question 78

The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Genital stage

Answer 78

-starts at puberty.
-libido focussed on the genitals.
-focussed on friendships & relationships.
-fixations begun impacting personality.

Question 79

The psychodynamic approach: Little Hans

Answer 79

Freud supported the theory of the Oedipus complex.
-Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
-Freud suggested this was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced onto horses.
-Thus, horses were a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear- fear of castration by father.

Question 80

Strength of the Psychodynamic approach: Real world application

Answer 80

-introduced psychoanalysis & Freud introduced psychotherapy.
-first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically, not physically.
-employed techniques to access unconscious by bringing repressed emotions to their conscious mind.
-foundation of modern therapists like counselling.

Counter: psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate for those with serious disorders (schizophrenia).
Many symptoms (paranoia/delusional) mean they’ve lost grip on reality & cannot articulate their thoughts.
Suggests Freudian theory may not apply to all mental disorders.

Question 81

Strength of the Psychodynamic approach: Explanatory power

Answer 81

It’s ability to explain human behaviour:
-controversial, but had influence on psych & contemporary thought.
-key force of psych for first half of the 20th century & has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena (personality/gender identity/disorders).
-significant in drawing attention to connection between experiences in childhood & later development.

Suggests that psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psych, literature, art etc.

Question 82

Limitation of the Psychodynamic approach: Untestable concepts (Popper)

Answer 82

Very untestable.
-Popper argued that approach doesn’t meet criteria of falsification.
-not open to empirical testing &
possibly disapproval.
-many of Freud’s theories i ur at an unconscious level so they’re harder to eldest.
-theories came from subjective studies (Little Hans) making it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour.

Suggests that his theory is pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than established fact.

Question 83

Limitation of the Psychodynamic approach: Psychic determinism

Answer 83

Suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood.
-Freud believed there’s no such thing as an ‘accident’.
-Even a ‘slip of the tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces & has a deep meaning.

Critics say this is too extreme & dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour.

Question 84

The Humanistic approach: Basic assumptions

Answer 84

Developed by Maslow & Rogers in the 1950s.
-focussed on conscious experience rather than behaviour, on personal responsibility & free will.
-free will is the notion that the choices we make are our own & not determined by internal (biological hormones) or external forces (society & association).

Question 85

Assumptions of the humanistic approach: Free will

Answer 85

-full conscious control over their destiny.
-people are able to make significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by other forces such as society rules or biology.

Question 86

Assumptions of the humanistic approach: Maslow’s theory (1943)

Answer 86

-Maslow was not interested in what went wrong with people, but rather he was interested in finding out what could go right.
-His hierarchy of needs emphasised the importance of personal growth & fulfilment & opened the door for later movements in psychology, such as positive psychology & happiness.

Question 87

Maslow’s theory: Hierarchy of needs

Answer 87

-each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need.
-Maslow believed that the more basic the need, the more powerful it is experienced & harder to ignore.

E.g. writing a spectacular essay is difficult when hungry/tired.

Question 88

Maslow’s theory: Self actualisation

Answer 88

-Represenrs the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy.
-All 4 of the ‘defiance of needs’ must be in order for a person to work towards SA & reach potential.
-Maslow find that most of those who attained this level shared certain characteristics.
-Such as; being creative, accepting & an accurate perception of the world around them.

Question 89

Maslow’s hierarchy model (1970)

Answer 89

Top to bottom:
-Self actualisation
-Need for esteem
-Need for love & belonging
-Need for safety
-Physiological needs

-Needs at the bottom are known as ‘deficiency needs’ as they are designed to reduce inadequacies & top levels are ‘growth needs’ as they promote personal growth.
-Maslow suggests that moments of achievement, we’re when all needs weee met (have to be met to progress upwards).
-Negative life experiences (divorce/fired etc) causes fluctuation between levels.

Question 90

Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Focus on self (1951)

Answer 90

-The self/self concept refers to how we see ourselves as a person.
-We have 2 basic needs:
1. Positive regard from others.
2. Feeling of self worth.

-Self worth develops in childhood & further interactions with others.
-Rogers believed feelings towards self worth is important in determining psychological health.
-The closer our self-concept & ideal self are, the greater our feelings of self worth & psychological health.

Question 91

Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Congruence

Answer 91

-When there’s similarity between a persons ideal self & how they perceive themselves to be in real life.
-Individual employ defence mechanisms to feel threatened by inconsistencies to be in real life.
-Individuals do this to be less threatened by how they would like to be & how they really are.

Question 92

Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Conditions of worth (1959)

Answer 92

-Rogers believed the harder you try to help process of SA, you hinder it.
-positive regard: unconditional regard is when you’re accepted for who you are.
-conditional positive regard (CPR) is when you’re accepted if you do what others want you to do.
-CPR leads to conditions of worth, these are conditions that a person perceived as significant places upon them.
-A person mag experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet expectations others have set.

Question 93

The Humanistic approach: Client centred therapy

Answer 93

-focussed on exploring emotions & asking patients about selves & how the feel (not heavy on ‘fixing’ client, rather exploring where emotions root).
-non-judgemental, unconditional positive & safe environment.
-empathy & lets them sit with difficult emotions & sits with them.
-“it is the client that knows what hurts” (Rogers).
-self concept - looking at how the client sees themselves, built from past & an external locus.
-tries to get back to the person’s core self & help them get back to an internal locus & explorative process.

Question 94

The Humanistic approach: Counselling psychology

Answer 94

-modern day psychotherapy.
-used in Samaritans & helplines.
-Rogers referred to them as ‘clients’, not ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert to their own condition.
-not directed by the therapist & client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions in a supportive non judgemental atmosphere.

-Rogers believes an effective therapist should provide: genuineness, empathy & unconditional positive regard.
-aims to increase persons feelings of self worth, congruence & help them function better.

-Similar counselling skills are practised, not only in clinical settings, but education, health, social work etc.
-praised as a forward-looking & effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past.
-best applied to treatment of ‘mild’ conditions (self worth/anxiety).

Question 95

Strength of the Humanistic approach: Holistic/Non-reductionism

Answer 95

Rejects attempts to break up behaviour & experience into smaller components.

-In contrast to the other theories, humanistic psychologists advocate holism (idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
This approach may have more validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.

Counter: reductionist approaches may be more scientific. & that’s because the ideal of science is the experiment. (IVs & DVs).
Relatively few concepts can be broken town to single variable & measured.
Means humanistic psychology is sort on empirical evidence to support its claims.

Question 96

Strength of Humanistic approach: Positive approach

Answer 96

Optimistic approach.
-bring persoj into psychology & promote positive image of the human condition.
-Freud saw humans as “prisoners of their past” & claimed we all existed between “common unhappiness & absolute despair.”
-in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards achievement of their potential & in control.

Suggests approach offers a refreshing & optimistic alternative to other approaches.

Question 97

Limitation of Humanistic approach: Cultural bias

Answer 97

Culturally biased approach.
-many ideas that are central to this (individual freedom, autonomy, personal growth) would be more readily associated with counties that have more individualist tendencies (US) than collectivist tendencies.
-collectivist tendency cultures emphasis needs of the group & interdependence.
-the ideals of humanistic psychology wouldn’t be important to them.

Possible that this approach isn’t universal & a product of cultural context in which it was developed.

Question 98

Limitation of Humanistic approach: Limited application

Answer 98

Little impact/little practical application in the real world.
-approach has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas.
-However, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques & Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation (esp in the workplace).

Question 99

Comparing approaches

Answer 99

S scientific
A application (treatments)
R reductionism vs holism
D determinism vs free will
I ideographic vs nomothetic
N nature vs nurture
E extrapolation (animals in research)