Approaches Flashcards
Who was Wundt
- Wilhelm Wundt is credited as being the first psychologist when in 1875 he created the first psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany.
- Pioneered introspection
- Believed structure of the mind could be studied by breaking down behaviours such as perception and sensation into their basic elements.
- Used standardised procedures
- His work marked the separation of modern psychology from its philosophical roots
What is introspection
A systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Introspection (Evaluation)
Innacurate; it relied on subjective responses from patients which can not be observed not was it possible to use it effectively to formulate theories on memory or perception. It is difficult to replicate compared to behaviouralist explanations such as classical and operant conditions which can be replicated.
Only suited people who showed self-awareness so it did not uncover appropriate in understanding all behaviour from people. In addition it did not uncover unconcious attitudes or bias people may hold which influence behaviour and choices
Emergence of psychology as a science
- 1900s Early BEHAVIOURISTS rejected introspection: John B. Watson argued that introspection was subjective, varied from person to person. ‘Scientific’ psychology should only study measurable and observable phenomena
- 1930s Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology: B.F.Skinner brought language and rigour of natural sciences to psychology
- 1950s Cognitive approach used scientific procedures to study mental processes: although mental processes remain ‘private’, cognitive psychologists able to make inferences about how these work based on tests in lab
- 1990s Biological approach introduced technological advances such as brain scans
Scientific approach to psych evaluation
+ As psychology relies on the same scientific methods as other natural sciences which includes the systematic, objective and replicability of research, it is seen as a credible science. Research can also be replicated and verified to test the reliability of findings and theories into human behaviour. As psychology sees all behaviour as deterministic, experiments can be created to establish the cause and effect relationship through emperical and replicable research.
- However, of all the natural sciences, psychology is the most inferential with direct cause and effect being hardest to establish between data observations and theories which look to explain the findings. When compared to biology and chemistry, the results even between replicated studies vary greatly which weakens the case for psychology being a credible science.
- Another weakness is not all behaviour or the workings of the mind can be explored or explained by psychological research and scientific method. This means predicting behaviour becomes impossible as the scientific method itself may be inappropriate within psychology. As the scientific approach focuses on objectivity and control within observations, when used to explain human behaviour through controlled environments the situations may be cotrived to natural settings. This would invariably tell us little about the lab settings and the findings may only be limited to the experiments themselves.
The behaviouralist approach
Assumes human behaviour can be explained mostly through conditioning and learning through experience. Conditioning involves forming learned associations between a stimuli and a response (either positive or negative) and assumes humans are born as a blank slate without genetic influences on behaviour
2 types of conditioning:
- classical
- operant
Classical conditioning & Pavlov
Classical conditioning originated through the work of Pavlov (1927) and occurs through learning by association. A behavioural response is learned when it becomes associated between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response. The neutral stimulus is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the natural response to it is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). In Pavlov’s experiments of classical conditioning the UCS was food given to the dog which produced the unconditioned response of salivating (UCR).
Introducing a neutral stimulus of a bell (NS) which is rang shortly before this food (UCS) is given, after many pairings of the two, the NS is able to produce the same response of salivation without the UCS. The NS is now known as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response of salivation if known as the conditioned response (CR).
Pavlov found that he was able to condition his dogs to produce the CR of salivation at the sound of the bell (CS) even in the absence of food this way. There were important factors that affected conditioned learning this way, first of which was time. If the NS is not introduces immediately before the UCS or if the time is too long between the two, conditioning will not occur. He also found that the CR was not permanent and over time, if no food (UCS) is given, the CR of sliv will eventually cease to occur (extinction). When the CS and UCS are paired once again, the link between the two and the CR is re-established again faster than initially made. Animals will also produce the CR to other stimuli which may appear similar to the CS.
What is operant conditioning
Learning is an active process where humans and animals OPERATE on their environment
Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
Skinner’s research
Rats and pigeons, in specially designed cages (Skinner’s boxes).
- When a rat activated a lever (or pigeon pecked disk), rewarded with a food pellet
- Desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated.
- If pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated
3 consequences of behaviour (Skinner)
- Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
- Negative reinforcement: when behaviour produced avoids something pleasant
- Punishment: an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Positive and negative reinforcement INCREASE the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. Punishment DECREASES it.
Strengths of Behaviourism
+Gave psychology SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY: by emphasising importance of scientific processes e.g. objectivity and replication
+Real life APPLICATION: e.g. token economy systems reward appropriate behaviour w tokens (operant conditioning). Used in prison/ psychiatric wards
Limitations of Behaviourism
- Portrays a MECHANIST VEIW, seen as passive machine-like: other approaches e.g. SLT & cognitive place more emphasis on mental events that occur during learning
- Form of ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM, ignores free will: e.g. Skinner suggested free will= illusion, we impose sense of decision but actually past conditioning determines outcome
- Animal research has ETHICAL & PRACTICAL issues: exposed to stressful and aversive conditions, may have affected how they reacted
Key assumptions of social learning theory
- Learning occurs indirectly
- Learning relatated to consequences of behaviour- vicarious reinforcement
- Meditational (cognitive) processes play a crucial role in learning
- Identification with role models is important
- Imitation of aggression (Bandura’s research)
Learning that occurs indirectly (SLT)
Bandung agreed w behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience however also proposed that learning takes place in a a social context through OBSERVATION and IMITATION of others.
Vicarious reinforcement
Children/ adults observe other’s behaviour and take note of consequences. Rewarded behaviour more likely to be copied than punished behaviour
4 mediational processes in learning
1) Attention- wether behaviour is noticed
2) Retention- wether behaviour is remembered
3) Motor reproduction- being able to do it
4) Motivation- the will to perform behaviour
* first 2 relate to learning, second 2 relate to performance
Identification
Children more likely to imitate behaviour of people they identify with. Role models are similar to observer, tend to be attractive + have high status.
How did children imitate aggression in Bandura’s research
Children watched either:
-Adult behaving aggressively towards doll
-Adult behaving non-aggressively towards Bobo doll
When given own doll to play with, children who’d seen aggression were more aggressive towards the doll.
Bandura’s research 2
Children saw adult who was:
-Rewarded
- Punished
- There was no consequence
When govern their own doll, children who saw aggression rewarded were more aggressive themselves.
Children model aggressive behaviour
Bobo doll studies suggest that children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model.
Also modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).
Strengths of SLT
+Emphasises importance of COGNITIVE FACTORS in learning (conditioning alone can’t offer comprehensive bc cognitive factors omitted): humans & animals store info about behaviour of others, use to make judgements on performing actions
+Can ACCOUNT FOR CULTURAL DIFFERENCES in behaviour (how children learn from those around them + media and how this can explain how cultural norms transmitted): proved useful in understanding broad range of behaviours e.g. how children understand gender by imitating role model.
+LESS DETERMINIST than behaviourist approach, emphasised reciprocal determinism: element of choice suggest there is some free will in how we behave
Limitations of SLT
- Relies too heavily on EVIDENCE FROM LAB STUDIES (=demand characteristics): main purpose of Bobo doll is to hit it so children may have been behaving as they thought was expected
- UNDERESTIMATES influence of BIOLOGICAL FACTORS (boys showed more aggression): may be explained by difference in testosterone levels, linked to aggression
Key assumptions/ things to know about the cognitive approach
- the scientific study of mental processes
- the role of inference in the study of mental processes
- the use of theoretical models when describing and explaining mental processes
- the use of computer models when describing ad explains mental processes
- schema
- the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
What does the cognitive approach say about mental processes
In contrast to behaviourist approach, cognitive approach argues mental processes should be studied, e.g. studying perception and memory
The role of inference in the study of mental processes
Mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly making inferences about what’s happening in someone mind based on their behaviour
Inferences
Assumptions
How are theoretical models used when describing and explaining mental processes
The information processing approach suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model
The use of computer models when describing when describing and explains mental processes
Computer models= programmes run on a computer to imitate a human mind
By running programme, psychologists can test wether their ideas about information processing are correct
Schema
- Schema are packages of information developed through experience
- Act as a ‘mental framework’ for the interpretation of information received by cognitive system
- Babies are born w simple motor schema for innate behaviours, such as sucking and grasping
- As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed + sophisticated
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- Cognitive neuroscience= the scientific study of the influence of brain structures (neuro) on mental processes (cognition).
- W technology advancements, scientists have been able to describe neurological basis of mental processing.
- This included research in memory that has linked EPISODIC and SEMANTIC memories to opposite sides of prefrontal cortex in brain.
- Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing neurological basis, e.g. the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD.
Strengths of the cognitive approach
+Uses SCIENTIFIC + OBJECTIVE method e.g. bc of lab studies: has enabled biology and cognitive psychology to come together so credible basis
+APPLICATION to everyday life, wide range of theoretical and practical contexts: for instance, approach has made an important contribution to the field of AI and development of robots
+LESS DETERMINIST than other approaches, based on soft determinism: contrasts w behaviourist approach. Which suggests that we are passive ‘slaves’ to environment and lack free choice in behaviour
Soft determinism
Recognising that our cognitive system can only operate within certain limits, but that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus
Limitations of the cognitive approach
- Based on MACHINE REDUCTIONISM, the computer analogy has been criticised: for instance, human emotion + motivation has been shown to influence accuracy of recall, e.g. in EWT. These factors not considered in computer analogy.
- Based on research that LACKS EXTERNAL VALIDITY, too abstract and theoretical due to inference: Also, research often carried out using artificial stimuli, such as word recall in memory studies which may not represent everyday experience
Things to know about the biological approach
- Everything psychological is at first biological
- Behaviour has a genetic and neurochemical basis
- The mind and body are one and the same
- Twin studies are used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour
- The difference between genotype and phenotype
- The theory of evolution is used by the biological approach to explain many aspects of behaviour
How is biology used to understand psychology
To fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system
How does behaviour have a genetic and neurochemical basis
Behaviours are inherited the same way as physical characteristics e.g. height. For example the 5HT1-D, beta gene implicated in OCD.
Neurochemistry also explains behaviour, e.g. low levels of serotonin in OCD.
How are the mind and body are the same (bio approach)
The mind lives in the brain- all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.
This is in contrast to cognitive approach, which sees the mind as separate from the brain.
Twin studies used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour
Concordance rates are calculated
Higher concordance rates among identical (monozygotic) twins than non-identical (dizygotic) twins is evidence of a genetic basis.
-For example, 68% of MZ twins both have OCD compared with 31% of DZ twins (Nestadt et al. 2010).
The difference between genotype and phenotype
- Genotype= actual genetic make-up.
- Phenotype= way genes are expressed, through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
- Expression of genotype (phenotype) if influenced by environmental factors.
- For example, phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet.
- This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature + nurture
The theory of evolution
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection
- Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passes on to future generations
- Such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages
- For instance, attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected
Strengths of The biological approach
+The use of SCIENTIFIC METHODS of investigation: includes scanning techniques (e.g. fMRI) and drug trials. Possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways not open to bias
+Has REAL-LIFE APPLICATION, increased understanding of biolchemical processes led to development of psychoactive drugs to treat disorders: e.g. depression. Although not effective for all treatments, has revolutionised treatment for many
Limitations of The biological approach
- CAUSAL CONCLUSIONS about neurotransmitters are difficult to establish, (in mental illness) studies show a particular drug reduces symptoms by changing levels of a neurotransmitter, assuming neurotransmitter is the cause: Like assuming the cause of a headache is lack of paracetamol simply bc paracetamol is effective in relieving symptoms of headache
- Approach based on DETERMINIST VEIW of behaviour, sees behaviour controlled by internal biological causes which humans can’t control: Contradicts legal system which sees offenders as responsible for actions. Discovery of ‘crime gene’ may complicate this.
- (Method) Difficulty separating NATURE & NURTURE: Identical twins, non-identical twins and members of the same family all have genetic similarities so any behavioural similarities must be genetic (bio approach): However, family members being exposed to similar environmental conditions is a confounding variable
Key things to know about the psychodynamic approach
- Influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour
- The tripartite structure of personality
- 5 psychosexual stages that determine adult personality
- The Oedipus complex
- Defence mechanisms used by ego
Freud’s 3 parts of the mind
- CONSCIOUS: what we are aware of
- PRE-CONSCIOUS: thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’
- UNCONSCIOUS: a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour
Freud’s 3 parts of personality
- ID: primitive part of the personality operates on the pleasure principle, demands instant gratification
- EGO: works on the reality principle, demands instant gratification
- SUPEREGO: internalised sense of right and wrong, based on morality principle. Punishes the ego through guilt
Psychosexual stages
Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move on to the next.
Any conflict that is unsolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries behaviours associated w that stage through adult life.
The 5 psychosexual stages
Oral (0-1 years)- pleasure focus= mouth, the mother’s breast is the object of desire
Anal (1-3 years)- pleasure focus= anus, the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces
Phallic (3-5 years)- pleasure focus= genital area
Latency- earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital (puberty)- sexual desires becomes conscious
The Oedipus complex
In the phallic stage, little boys develop incestuous feeling towards mother and murderous hatred towards father.
Later boys repress their feelings for mother and identify w their father, taking on his gender role and moral values.
Girls of the same age experience penis envy.
Defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies used by the ego:
REPRESSION- forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
DENIAL- refusing to acknowledge reality.
DISPLACEMENT- transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target.
Strengths of the psychodynamic
+Has EXPLANATORY power; although controversial and bizarre, has had huge impact on contemporary western thought: used to explain range of behaviours (moral, mental disorders) and drew attention to influence to influence of childhood on adult personality
+PRACTICAL APPLICATION to real world, psychoanalysis was introduced, accessing the uncoils using techniques such as hypnosis and dream analysis: Psychoanalysis is most suitable for individuals suffering from mild neuroses but has been criticised as inappropriate for people w severe mental disorders e.g. schizophrenia.
Limitations of the psychodynamic approach
- CASE STUDY method criticised, developed using small umber of case studies, nit possible to make universal claims about human nature based on limited sample: Although Freud’s observations detailed + carefully recorded, interpretations were highly subjective thus its unlikely that any other researcher would’ve drawn same conclusions.
- Includes UNTESTABLE CONCEPTS, (Popper) argued doesn’t meet falsification: many of Freud’s concepts e.g. Oedipus complex occur at unconscious level making them difficult/ impossible to test
- Based on PSYCHIC DETERMINISM, explains all behaviour as determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood: even something random like a ‘slip of the tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces + has deep symbolic meaning
Things to know/ asssumptions about the humanistic approach
- Concept of free will is central
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- Focus on self
- The aim of therapy is to establish congruence between the self-concept and the ideal self
- Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth
- Has had a lasting influence on counselling psychology
Free will in the humanistic approach
- Rejects attempts to establish scientific principles of human behaviour
- We are all unique, psychology should be concerned w the study of subjective experience rather than general laws- a person-centred approach
Self-actualisation
Innate tendency everyone has to achieve our full potential and the best we possibly can
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self actualisation
Esteem: e.g. respect
Love and belonging: e.g. intimacy
Safety needs: e.g. personal security
Physiological needs: e.g. water
The self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception of ‘what i am’ and ‘what i can do’.
Congruence between the self-concept and the ideal self (the aim of therapy)
Rogers argued that personal growth requires an individuals concept of self to be congruent w their ideal self.
If too big a gap, the person will experience a sate of incongruence and self-actualisation isn’t possible.
How parents can prevent personal growth
Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth
Issues like worthlessness and low-self esteem have their roots in childhood and are due to lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.
A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child by claiming ‘I will only love you if…’ is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future.
The impact of the humanistic approach on counselling psychology
In Rogers’ therapy, client provided w 3 things:
- Genuineness
- Empathy
- Unconditional positive regard
How has Rodgers’ work transformed psychotherapy
‘Non-directive’ counselling techniques are practiced, not only in clinical settings, but throughout education, health, social work and industry.
Non-directive counselling
An approach to the treatment of mental disorders that aims primarily toward fostering personality growth by helping individuals gain insight into and acceptance of their feelings, values, and behaviour.
Strengths of the humanistic approach
+ANTI-REDUCTIONIST so possibly more meaningful bc doesn’t break experience up: advocates holism
+Portrays POSITIVE IMAGE of human condition, people in control/ freedom to change: Freud saw humans as slaves to their past and claimed all existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’.
Holism
The idea that jubjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationships, past, present, future, etc).
Limitations of the humanistic approach
- LIMITED APPLICATION in the real world, true Rogers + Maslow useful; however compared to other approaches, limited impact on psychology as a whole- bc it lacks sound evidence base.
- Includes UNTESTABLE CONCEPTS, abstract: e.g. self- actualisation
- Possible Western CULTURAL BIAS: ideas central to it e.g. individual freedom more associated w individualist cultures whereas collectivist cultures who prioritise the group may not identify so easily
