Approaches Flashcards
Who was Wundt
- Wilhelm Wundt is credited as being the first psychologist when in 1875 he created the first psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany.
- Pioneered introspection
- Believed structure of the mind could be studied by breaking down behaviours such as perception and sensation into their basic elements.
- Used standardised procedures
- His work marked the separation of modern psychology from its philosophical roots
What is introspection
A systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Introspection (Evaluation)
Innacurate; it relied on subjective responses from patients which can not be observed not was it possible to use it effectively to formulate theories on memory or perception. It is difficult to replicate compared to behaviouralist explanations such as classical and operant conditions which can be replicated.
Only suited people who showed self-awareness so it did not uncover appropriate in understanding all behaviour from people. In addition it did not uncover unconcious attitudes or bias people may hold which influence behaviour and choices
Emergence of psychology as a science
- 1900s Early BEHAVIOURISTS rejected introspection: John B. Watson argued that introspection was subjective, varied from person to person. ‘Scientific’ psychology should only study measurable and observable phenomena
- 1930s Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology: B.F.Skinner brought language and rigour of natural sciences to psychology
- 1950s Cognitive approach used scientific procedures to study mental processes: although mental processes remain ‘private’, cognitive psychologists able to make inferences about how these work based on tests in lab
- 1990s Biological approach introduced technological advances such as brain scans
Scientific approach to psych evaluation
+ As psychology relies on the same scientific methods as other natural sciences which includes the systematic, objective and replicability of research, it is seen as a credible science. Research can also be replicated and verified to test the reliability of findings and theories into human behaviour. As psychology sees all behaviour as deterministic, experiments can be created to establish the cause and effect relationship through emperical and replicable research.
- However, of all the natural sciences, psychology is the most inferential with direct cause and effect being hardest to establish between data observations and theories which look to explain the findings. When compared to biology and chemistry, the results even between replicated studies vary greatly which weakens the case for psychology being a credible science.
- Another weakness is not all behaviour or the workings of the mind can be explored or explained by psychological research and scientific method. This means predicting behaviour becomes impossible as the scientific method itself may be inappropriate within psychology. As the scientific approach focuses on objectivity and control within observations, when used to explain human behaviour through controlled environments the situations may be cotrived to natural settings. This would invariably tell us little about the lab settings and the findings may only be limited to the experiments themselves.
The behaviouralist approach
Assumes human behaviour can be explained mostly through conditioning and learning through experience. Conditioning involves forming learned associations between a stimuli and a response (either positive or negative) and assumes humans are born as a blank slate without genetic influences on behaviour
2 types of conditioning:
- classical
- operant
Classical conditioning & Pavlov
Classical conditioning originated through the work of Pavlov (1927) and occurs through learning by association. A behavioural response is learned when it becomes associated between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response. The neutral stimulus is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the natural response to it is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). In Pavlov’s experiments of classical conditioning the UCS was food given to the dog which produced the unconditioned response of salivating (UCR).
Introducing a neutral stimulus of a bell (NS) which is rang shortly before this food (UCS) is given, after many pairings of the two, the NS is able to produce the same response of salivation without the UCS. The NS is now known as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response of salivation if known as the conditioned response (CR).
Pavlov found that he was able to condition his dogs to produce the CR of salivation at the sound of the bell (CS) even in the absence of food this way. There were important factors that affected conditioned learning this way, first of which was time. If the NS is not introduces immediately before the UCS or if the time is too long between the two, conditioning will not occur. He also found that the CR was not permanent and over time, if no food (UCS) is given, the CR of sliv will eventually cease to occur (extinction). When the CS and UCS are paired once again, the link between the two and the CR is re-established again faster than initially made. Animals will also produce the CR to other stimuli which may appear similar to the CS.
What is operant conditioning
Learning is an active process where humans and animals OPERATE on their environment
Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
Skinner’s research
Rats and pigeons, in specially designed cages (Skinner’s boxes).
- When a rat activated a lever (or pigeon pecked disk), rewarded with a food pellet
- Desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated.
- If pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated
3 consequences of behaviour (Skinner)
- Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
- Negative reinforcement: when behaviour produced avoids something pleasant
- Punishment: an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Positive and negative reinforcement INCREASE the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. Punishment DECREASES it.
Strengths of Behaviourism
+Gave psychology SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY: by emphasising importance of scientific processes e.g. objectivity and replication
+Real life APPLICATION: e.g. token economy systems reward appropriate behaviour w tokens (operant conditioning). Used in prison/ psychiatric wards
Limitations of Behaviourism
- Portrays a MECHANIST VEIW, seen as passive machine-like: other approaches e.g. SLT & cognitive place more emphasis on mental events that occur during learning
- Form of ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM, ignores free will: e.g. Skinner suggested free will= illusion, we impose sense of decision but actually past conditioning determines outcome
- Animal research has ETHICAL & PRACTICAL issues: exposed to stressful and aversive conditions, may have affected how they reacted
Key assumptions of social learning theory
- Learning occurs indirectly
- Learning relatated to consequences of behaviour- vicarious reinforcement
- Meditational (cognitive) processes play a crucial role in learning
- Identification with role models is important
- Imitation of aggression (Bandura’s research)
Learning that occurs indirectly (SLT)
Bandung agreed w behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience however also proposed that learning takes place in a a social context through OBSERVATION and IMITATION of others.
Vicarious reinforcement
Children/ adults observe other’s behaviour and take note of consequences. Rewarded behaviour more likely to be copied than punished behaviour
4 mediational processes in learning
1) Attention- wether behaviour is noticed
2) Retention- wether behaviour is remembered
3) Motor reproduction- being able to do it
4) Motivation- the will to perform behaviour
* first 2 relate to learning, second 2 relate to performance
Identification
Children more likely to imitate behaviour of people they identify with. Role models are similar to observer, tend to be attractive + have high status.
How did children imitate aggression in Bandura’s research
Children watched either:
-Adult behaving aggressively towards doll
-Adult behaving non-aggressively towards Bobo doll
When given own doll to play with, children who’d seen aggression were more aggressive towards the doll.
Bandura’s research 2
Children saw adult who was:
-Rewarded
- Punished
- There was no consequence
When govern their own doll, children who saw aggression rewarded were more aggressive themselves.
Children model aggressive behaviour
Bobo doll studies suggest that children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model.
Also modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).
Strengths of SLT
+Emphasises importance of COGNITIVE FACTORS in learning (conditioning alone can’t offer comprehensive bc cognitive factors omitted): humans & animals store info about behaviour of others, use to make judgements on performing actions
+Can ACCOUNT FOR CULTURAL DIFFERENCES in behaviour (how children learn from those around them + media and how this can explain how cultural norms transmitted): proved useful in understanding broad range of behaviours e.g. how children understand gender by imitating role model.
+LESS DETERMINIST than behaviourist approach, emphasised reciprocal determinism: element of choice suggest there is some free will in how we behave
Limitations of SLT
- Relies too heavily on EVIDENCE FROM LAB STUDIES (=demand characteristics): main purpose of Bobo doll is to hit it so children may have been behaving as they thought was expected
- UNDERESTIMATES influence of BIOLOGICAL FACTORS (boys showed more aggression): may be explained by difference in testosterone levels, linked to aggression
Key assumptions/ things to know about the cognitive approach
- the scientific study of mental processes
- the role of inference in the study of mental processes
- the use of theoretical models when describing and explaining mental processes
- the use of computer models when describing ad explains mental processes
- schema
- the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
What does the cognitive approach say about mental processes
In contrast to behaviourist approach, cognitive approach argues mental processes should be studied, e.g. studying perception and memory
The role of inference in the study of mental processes
Mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly making inferences about what’s happening in someone mind based on their behaviour
