Applied anatomy and physiology Flashcards
what is the definition of a joint?
An area of the body where two or more bones articulate to create human movement.
What is a ligament?
A tough band of fibrous, slightly elastic connective tissue that attaches bone to bone.
What is articulating cartilage?
smooth tissue which covers the surface of articulating bones to absorb shock and allow friction-free movement.
what is the name of the back bone?
Scapula
what is the name of the bone that is at the front center of the rib cage?
the sturnum
what is the name of the upper arm bone?
the humerus
what is the name of the thinner/smaller bone in the lower arm?
The uina
what is the name of the thicker/larger bone in the lower arm?
the radius
what is the name of the small bones in at the wrist/top of hand?
the carpals
What is another name for the spinal cord?
the vertebral column
what is another name for the pelvic bone
the pelvic girdle
what is the name of the upper leg bone?
the femur
what is the name of the larger lower leg bone?
the tibia
what is the name of the smaller lower leg bone?
the fibula
what is the name of the bones at the top of the ankle?
the talus
what does ‘plane of movement’ mean?
the description of three dimensional movements at a joint.
what does ‘movement patterns’ mean?
a description of the actions taking place at a joint e.g. flexion and extension of the elbow joint.
what are the planes of movement?
the sagittal plane
the frontal plane
the transverse plane
what is the sagittal plane?
it divides the body into left and right parts from the midline to the outside.
what is the frontal plane?
it divides the body into anterior (front) and posteria (back).
what is the transverse plane?
it divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower).
Name the types of joint.
a hinge joint a pivot joint a gliding joint a ball and socket joint a condyloid joint
what types of movement occurs at the sagittal plane?
flexion and extention
what is flexion?
a decrease in joint angle, usually to the front of the body.
what is extension?
an increase on the joint angle, usually towards the back of the body
what is dorsi-flexion?
a decrease in the joint angle bringing the toes closer to the tibia.
what is plantar-flexion?
an increase in the joint angle, moving the toes further away from the tibia
what types of movement occur at the frontal plane?
abduction and adduction.
what is abduction?
movement of the joint that moves the articulating bone away from the midline of the body.
what is adduction?
movement of the joint that moves the articulating bone closer to the midline of the body.
what types of movement occur at the transverse plane?
horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
what is horizontal extension?
a joint moving the articulating bone away from the midline of the body.
what is horizontal flexion?
a joint moving the articulating bone closer to the midline of the body.
what is the primary function of the muscular system?
to create movement
what are tendons?
fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.
what is ‘origin’ in terms of tendons?
the point of muscular attachment to a stationary bone which stays relatively fixed during muscular contraction. e.g. the biceps brachii’s origin is on the scapular during an arm curl.
what is ‘insertion’ in terms of tendons?
the point of muscular attachment to a moveable bone which gets closer to the origin during muscular contraction. e.g. the biceps brachii’s insertion is on the radius during an arm curl.
what is an agonist?
a muscle responsible for creating movement at a joint. Also known as the prime mover.
what is an antagonist?
a muscle that opposes the agonist providing a resistance for coordinated movement.
what is a fixator?
a muscle that stabilizes one part of a body while another causes movement
what is antagonistic muscle movement?
paired muscle action. As the agonist muscle shortens to create movement, the antagonist lengthens to coordinate the action.
what is isotonic contraction?
muscular contraction which changes length during its contraction.
what is concentric muscle contraction?
muscular contraction which shortens while producing tension.
what is eccentric muscle contraction?
muscular contraction which lengthens while producing tension.
what is isometric muscle contraction?
muscular contraction which stays the same length while producing tension.
what is delay onset muscle soreness? (DOMS)
pain and stiffness felt in the muscle which peaks 24-72 hours after exercise, associated with eccentric muscle contractions.
what is a motor neuron?
a nerve cell which conducts a nerve impulse to a group of muscle fibers.
what is the motor unit?
a motor neuron and the muscle fibers stimulates by an axon.
how do skeletal muscles contract?
by stimulation by an electrical impulse sent from the central nervous system.
what does the motor unit do?
carry nerve impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscle fibers, initiating muscular contraction.
what is action potential?
positive electrical charge inside the nerve and muscle cells which conducts the nerve impulse down the neuron and into the muscle fiber.
what is a neurotransmitter?
a chemical (acetylcholine) produced and secreted by a neuron which transmits the nerve impulse across the synaptic cleft to the muscle fiber.
what is the all-or-none law?
depending on whether the stimulus is above a threshold, all muscle fibers will give complete contraction or no contraction at all.
what are slow oxidative muscle fibers?
a type of muscle fibre rich in mitochondria, myoglobin and capillaries which produces a small amount of force over a long period of time.
what are fast glycolytic muscle fibers?
a type of muscle fiber rich in phosphocreatine which produces a maximal force over a short period of time.
what are the types of muscle fibers?
slow oxidative muscle fibers
fast oxidative glycolytic muscle fibers
fast glycolytic muscle fibers
what is aerobic work?
low intensity, long-duration exercise in the presence of oxygen.
what is anaerobic work?
high intensity, short-duration exercise in the absence of oxygen.
what is the pulmonary circuit?
circulation of blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and pulmonary vein back to the heart.
what is the systemic circuit?
circulation of blood through the aorta to the body and vega cava back to the heart
what is the conduction system?
a set of structures in the cardiac muscle which create and transmit an electrical impulse, forcing the atria and ventricles to contract.
what does myogenic mean?
the capacity of the heart to generate its own electrical impulse, which causes the cardiac muscle to contract.
what is the role of the SA node?
to generate an electrical impulse and send it through the atria walls, causing them to contract.
what is the role of the AV node?
to collect the electrical impulse and delays it for approx 0.1 seconds to allow the atria to finish contracting. It then releases the impulse into the Bundle of His.
what is role of the Bundle of His?
it splits the impulse into two, ready to be distributed through each separate ventricle.
what is the role of the bundle branches?
they carry the impulse to the base of each ventricle.
what is the role of the purkyne fibers?
they distribute the impulse through the ventricle walls causing them to contract.
what is diastole?
the relaxation phase of cardiac muscle where the chambers fill with blood.
what is systole?
the contraction phase of cardiac muscle where the blood is forcibly ejected into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
what is heart rate?
the number of times the heart beats per minute (approx 72bpm resting)
what is stroke volume?
the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat. (approx 70ml resting)
define cardiac output.
the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute HR x SV = Q (approx 5l/min)
what does bradycardia mean?
a resting heart rate below 60bpm.
what is venous return?
the return of the blood to the right atria through the veins.
what is the average resting HR, SV and Q of a trained and untrained athlete?
untrained: HR = 70-72bpm, SV = 70ml, Q = 5l/min
trained: HR = 50bpm, SV = 100ml, Q = 5l/min
what is sub-maximal exercise?
low to moderate intensity, within a performers aerobic capacity.
what is maximal exercise?
high intensity, above performers aerobic capacity and will induce fatigue.
what is the Frank-Starling mechanism? (starlings law)
an increase in venous return leads to an increased stroke volume, due to an increased stretch of the ventricle walls and therefore of concentration.
what is the HR, SV and Q at rest, sub-maximal intensity and maximum intensity for an untrained athlete?
Rest: HR = 70-72 bpm, SV = 70ml, Q = 5l/min
Sub-maximal: HR = 100-130bpm, SV = 100-120ml, Q = 10-15l/min
Maximal: HR = 220 - age, SV = 100-120ml, Q = 20-30l/min
what is the HR, SV and Q at rest, sub-maximal intensity and maximum intensity for a trained athlete?
Rest: HR = 50bpm, SV = 100ml, Q = 5l/min
Sub-maximal: HR = 95-120bpm, SV = 160-200ml, Q = 15-20l/min
Maximal: HR = 220 - age, SV = 160-200ml, Q = 30-40l/min
what does the autonomic nervous system do?
It involuntarily regulates heart rate and determines the firing rate of the SA node.
what is the cardiac control center?
a control center in the medulla oblongata responsible for regulating heart rate
name the types of control mechanisms within the CCC
- hormonal control
- intrinsic control
- neural control
what hormonal control is in the CCC and what does it do?
Adrenalin. It increases the force of ventricular contraction and increases the spread of electrical activity through the heart.
what intrinsic controls are in the CCC and what do they fo?
Temperature change. Affects the viscosity of the blood and speed of nerve impulse transmission.
Venous return. Changes will affect the stretch in ventricle walls, force ventricular contraction an =d thus stroke volume.
What neural controls are in the CCC and what do they do?
Chemoreceptors. Located in the muscles, aorta and carotid arteries, inform the CCC of chemical changes in the blood stream, such as increased CO2 and lactic acid levels.
Proprioreceptors. Located in the muscles, tendons and joints, inform the CCC of motor activity.
Baroreceptors. Located in blood vessel walls, inform the CCC of increased blood pressure.
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for increasing heart rate, specifically during exercise.
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for decreasing heart rate, specifically during recovery.
Name the types of blood vessels.
Arteries, veins and capillaries.
what is the role of arteries and arterioles?
to transport oxygenated blood from the heart to the muscles and organs.
define vasodilate.
the widening of arteries, arterioles and pre-capillary sphincters.
Define vasoconstric.
the narrowing of arteries, arterioles and pre-capillary sphincters.
What is the role of capillaries?
they bring blood slowly in close contract with the muscle and organ cells for gaseous exchange
what is the role of veins and venules?
to transport deoxygenated blood from the muscle and organs back to the heart.
define venodilate.
the widening of veins and venules.
define venoconstrict.
the narrowing of veins and venules.
what is venous return?
the return of blood to the heart through the venules and veins back into the right atrium.
Name the mechanisms of venous return.
- pocket valves
- smooth muscle
- gravity
- muscle pump
- respiratory pump
what are pocket valves?
one-way valves located in the veins which prevent the back flow of blood.
what is smooth muscle? (venous return)
the layer of smooth muscle in the vein wall venoconstrics to create venomotor tone which aids the movement of blood.
what is gravity in venous return?
blood from the upper body, above the heart, is helped to return by gravity.
what is a muscle pump? (venous return)
during exercise, skeletal muscles contract compressing the veins located between the, squeezing the blood back to the heart.
what is a respiratory pump? (venous return)
during inspiration and expiration, a pressure difference between the thoracic and abdominal cavity if created, squeezing the blood back to the heart.
define inspiration.
the drawing of air into the lungs
define expiration.
the expelling of air from the lungs
what is blood pooling?
the accumulation of blood in the veins due to gravitational pull and lack of venous return.
what is active recovery?
low-intensity activity post exercise to maintain elevated heart rate and breathing rate.
define vascular shunt mechanism.
the redistribution of cardiac output around the body from rest to exercise which increases the percentage of blood flow to the skeletal muscles.
what do arterioles do during rest?
they vasodilate to the organs increasing blood flow. the vasoconstrict to the muscles to limit blood flow
what do pre-capillary sphincters do during rest?
they dilate, opening up the capillary beds to allow more blood flow to the organ cells, while constricting closing the capillary beds to the muscle cells.
what are arterioles?
blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood from the arteries to the capillary beds, which can vasodilate and vasoconstrict to regulate blood flow.
what are pre-capillary sphincters?
rings of smooth muscle at the junction between arterioles and capillaries, which can dilate or constrict to control blood flow through the capillary beds.
what is the vasomotor control center?
the control center in the medulla oblongata responsible for cardiac output distribution
what is the vasomotor tone?
the partial state of smooth muscle constriction in the arterial walls
where does the VCC receive information from?
chemoreceptors and baroreceptors
what are the two main functions of the respiratory system?
pulmonary ventilation and gaseous exchange.
what is pulmonary ventilation?
the inspirations and expiration of air.
what is gaseous exchange in the respiratory system?
- external respiration - the movement of air into the blood stream and carbon dioxide into the lungs.
- internal respiration - the release of oxygen to respiring cells for energy production and collection of waste products.
