Application of Ethical Theories Flashcards
1
Q
Theft - Natural Moral Law (general)
A
- breaches the primary precept to live in an ordered society
- contrary to the secondary precept not to steal, which is reinforced by divine law in the commandment ‘You shall not steal’
2
Q
Theft - Natural Moral Law (Aquinas’s exception)
A
- a starving man might steal food from someone who had plenty
- the primary precept to preserve life comes before that relating to an ordered society
- could be seen as practicing the cardinal virtue of justice and the theological virtue of love
3
Q
Theft - Proportionalism in response to Aquinas’s exception
A
- the intention is good i.e., to save a life
- the value of saving a life would be proportionally greater than the disvalue of injustice to the victim of theft
4
Q
Theft - Situation Ethics
A
- Fletcher would consider the teachings of the Church/Bible but would not feel bound by them
- the interests of people take priority over rules
- motive and consequences of an action, for the individual and for others, would be considered
- agape is considered and agapeic calculus is applied for justice
5
Q
Theft - Virtue Ethics
A
- the focus is on acting from habit, developed through a lifetime of practice and emulating a phronimos
this allows for flexibility, depending on the person and the situation - Aristotle denounced all theft as a base action
- it has no mean, since it can never be the act of a virtuous person
- there is no excess or deficiency
6
Q
Theft - Virtue Ethics: situation of a starving child
A
- his teachings were addressed to his own social class where starvation or some other urgent need would not be an issue
- he might have seen taking what was needed to prevent starvation as an act of justice and not as theft
7
Q
Lying - Natural Moral Law
A
- breaches the primary precept to live in an ordered society
- contrary to the secondary precept not to tell lies
- goes against cardinal virtues of courage and justice
- Aquinas viewed all forms of lying as wrong, even those intended to save life
8
Q
Lying Natural Moral Law (exception)
A
- Aquinas viewed ‘prudently keeping back the truth’ as morally permissible
- this could be termed a ‘necessary lie’ as it is told to protect someone from danger
Example: Kant’s Axeman
9
Q
Lying - Proportionalism
A
- there are exceptions to lying being morally wrong
- in the case of a ‘necessary lie’, the value of saving a life or protecting from harm would be proportionally greater than the disvalue of injustice to the person being told the lie
10
Q
Lying - Situation Ethics
A
- Fletcher says lying not intrinsically right nor wrong
- depends on what would affirm love in each situation
- if applying the agapeic calculus showed that love would be best served by lying e.g., by telling a white lie, then lying would be good
- example: nurses lying to schizophrenic patients to keep them calm for treatment
11
Q
Lying - Virtue Ethics
A
- contradicts Aristotle’s moral virtues of truthfulness and courage
- in some circumstances, friendship, loyalty and honour might require a lie to be told
- the virtue of practical wisdom enables a virtuous person to know which virtue takes priority in difficult situations
12
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - NML Primary Precepts
A
creation of embryo through IVF breaches three primary precepts:
- worship of God - only God alone can create life
- reproduction - sexual act must not be separated from procreative act
- living in an ordered society - separating the unitive (physical union between man and woman during sex) from the procreative may threaten marriage and family harmony
13
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - NML destruction of embryos
A
- at 14 days at least, embryos used in research must be destroyed
- this breaches the primary precept of preservation of innocent life
- tantamount to murder
- in NML, both the intention and the action must be good, but in this case the action is wrong
14
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - NML creation of designer babies for social reasons
A
- breaches worship of God
- breaches living in an ordered society
devalues the weak
leads to discrimination based on wealth
it may lead to a race of super-humans
15
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - SE status of embryo
A
- personhood was what conferred (granted) rights
- the embryo is only a potential person as it does not possess characteristics of personhood (self-awareness, communication)
- therefore, embryo research etc., do not pose moral concerns
16
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - SE techniques used
A
- all techniques supported, providing proper controls were in place
- humans are in control of their own reproduction
- Fletcher rejected that humanity is created in God’s image
- what the agapeic calculus showed to be the most loving action is right
17
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - SE purposes of the techniques
A
- whatever most affirmed love and fulfilled the criteria of the agapeic calculus was what mattered
- the intention in many situations involving these techniques were good
18
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - VE destruction of embryos
A
- key virtue is compassion
- a compassionate person would likely focus more on those whose lives are being ruined by infertility, illnesses and life-threatening genetic disorders
19
Q
Embryo research, cloning, designer babies - VE techniques used
A
- key virtue is compassion
- it might be callous not to use PGD to prevent the birth of a child with a life-limiting genetic disorder
- justice is key, and practical wisdom would be needed to determine when these techniques would demonstrate virtue and when they would not
20
Q
Abortion - NML
A
- sanctity of life
- breaches worship of God, preservation of innocent life, and living in an ordered society
21
Q
Abortion - NML (exception)
A
- removal of a pregnant woman’s cancerous uterus to save her life fulfills all principles of DDE
the act is morally good
good effect is not obtained by means of the bad effect
bad effect is not intended
there is proportionality between the good and bad effects
- this is termed indirect abortion
22
Q
Abortion - Situation Ethics
A
- the interests of the actual person should take priority over those of a potential person
- ‘love should be applied situationally, not prescriptively’
- four presuppositions should be applied (pragmatism, positivism, personalism, relativism)
- consider outcome as well as means, motive and consequences
- example: Gisella Perl performing 3000 abortions
23
Q
Abortion - Virtue Ethics
A
- abortion ‘before sense and life have begun’ should take place if there were too many children (demonstrates concern for both society and the family)
- the reason for abortion must be weighty - cannot stem from callousness, self-centredness and irresponsibility (Hursthouse)
- aborting a malformed fetus could be seen as just to save the child from a life of pain
24
Q
Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide - NML
A
- contravene three primary precepts: worship of God (life is God’s gift), preservation of innocent life, living in an ordered society (legislation could make it involuntary)
- sanctity of life
- does not pass DDE (death to relieve suffering)
- suffering can have the positive purpose of enabling spiritual growth
25
Q
Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide - Situation Ethics
A
- Fletcher supported the legalising of voluntary euthanasia
- of love demanded it, all the Commandments could be broken, as love is the only norm
- is the person sure of the consequences?
- personalism
- was the choice rational/freely made?
26
Q
Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide - Virtue Ethics
A
- murder is a vice without any mean
- goes against the virtue of courage
- goes against justice, as it deprived society of a useful citizen
- compassion/charity may be placed above justice
- eudaimonia - if person is not flourishing, then life may not be worth living
27
Q
Capital Punishment - NML
A
- could be legitimate if it is carried out by the state
- executioner does not become murderer as the act was authorised by the state (just like how God authorised the Israelites to kill their enemies)
- supports primary precept of living in an ordered society
- upholds cardinal virtue of justice
- some NML theorists refer to the lex talionis (law of retribution)
28
Q
Capital Punishment - SE
A
- no set view
- people applying the same set of principles might not agree on the most loving action
- a case of what most affirms love in each situation
- would take into account concerns of all involved (victim + loved ones, murderer + loved ones, society)
- love and justice are the same
29
Q
Capital Punishment - VE
A
- most important virtue is justice
altruistic, so the interests of society must be taken into account
executing a murderer may be seen as rectifying justice - the death penalty may be the most appropriate way of restoring balance required by justice
30
Q
the four procedures regarding non-human animals
A
- the use of animals for food; intensive farming
- the use of animals in scientific procedures; cloning
- the use of animals in blood sports
- the use of animals as a source of organs for transplants
31
Q
Aquinas’ views on animals
A
- hierarchy of souls adopted from Aristotle - humans are above animals and plants
- animals are irrational, so they have instrumental value only
- the end of animals is to serve our needs
- Aquinas thought being cruel to animals might encourage people to be cruel to each other
32
Q
Use of non-human animals - NML
A
- all four procedures are justified by the view that animals are intended for human use
- animals have no right to life
- using animals for medical testing could be seen as fulfilling the primary precept of preservation of innocent life
- rejects any types of cloning that would mix genetic materials of different animal species
33
Q
Use of non-human animals - Catholic views (link to NML)
A
- animals are created by God with intrinsic value and that ‘men owe them kindness’
- Pope Francis rejects anthropocentrism
- animal testing is permitted because it promotes human wellbeing, but suffering must be kept to the minimum
34
Q
Situation Ethics view on animals
A
- should the working principles be extended to include animals?
- personalism
35
Q
Use of non-human animals - SE
A
- personalism
e.g., intensive farming to solve world hunger, reduction in meat production to increase the farming of crops for human use - the proposition of the ends justifying the means supports animal testing
- opposes blood sports
agape demands compassion, not cruelty
desensitising effect on humans leads to disregard for agape - personalism would support xenotransplantation
- if animals are seen to have same rights as humans, all four would be rejected
36
Q
Aristotle’s view on animals
A
- animals come below humans in the hierarchy of souls
- their final end is to serve human need
- animals do not have rights
37
Q
Use of non-human animals - VE
A
- intensive farming is not virtuous
e.g., keeping animals in appalling conditions is not compassionate - animal testing and cloning are virtuous, as he dissected animals in his own research
using intelligence to discover the world is the highest use of reason - finding effective ways of treating human disease is seen as compassionate
- lack of concern for animal suffering is not compassionate (anaesthesia)
- enjoyment of blood sports demonstrates lack of temperance, compassion and sensitivity
- Aristotle’s support for scientific research and acquisition of knowledge may suggest support for xenotransplantation
