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apk exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

skeletal system

A

made of bones, cartilages, and joints

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2
Q

cartilage

A
  • is connective tissue
  • 3 types: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage (remember CHEF)
  • abundant extracellular matrix: gel-like, fibers
  • predominant cell type = chondrocytes
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3
Q

hyaline cartilage

A
  • aka articulate cartilage
  • end of long bones
  • growth plates within bones
  • costal cartilage
  • respiratory structures
  • embryonic skeleton
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4
Q

elastic cartilage

A
  • epiglottis
  • outer ear/pinna
  • abundant elastic fiber in matrix
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5
Q

fibrocartilage

A
  • pubic symphysis
  • menisci in the knee joint
  • intervertebral discs
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6
Q

perichondrium

A
  • tissue around the cartilage; resists outward expansion when cartilage is under pressure; growth and repair. of cartilage
  • made of dense irregular CT
  • ex: around the epiglottis
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7
Q

functions of obones

A
  • support
  • protection
  • mvmnt
  • mineral storage
  • hemopoiesis
  • E storage
  • metabolism
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8
Q

bone classIfications

A

BASED ON SHAPE, NOT SIZE

  1. long bone (ex: humerus, metacarpals)
  2. short bone (ex: talus): more cube-like, no elongated shaft
    • sesamoid bone
  3. flat bone: flat or curved (sternum, scapula, ribs)
  4. irregular bone (vertebra)
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9
Q

sesamoid bone

A

type of short bone sesame seed shape

  • patella, base of big toe
  • derived from the tendon
  • acts to alter direction when we have movement @ a certain joint like a pulley)
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10
Q

bone tissue

A
  1. compact; found on the outside; denser outer layer
  2. spongey aka trabecular bone: internal
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11
Q

gross anatomical features of a typical long bone

A
  • long shaft, 2 distinct ends
  1. proximal epiphysis (end of the bone closest to ur joints)
  2. metaphysis: junction b/w the epiphysis and the diaphysis; has the epiphyseal line within this region
  3. diaphysis = shaft
  4. distal epiphysis (end of the bone farthest away from ur joints)
  5. articular cartilage: made of hyaline cartilage; @ edge of bone where bone meets joint; reduces friction
  6. compact bone; most superficial layer of the shaft and the epiphysis
  7. spongy bone inside; red bone marrow inside spongy bone; hemopoiesis
  8. periosteum: membrane around the bone; not the same as perichondrium
  9. medullary cavity: along the shaft; yellow bone marrow (fatty)
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12
Q

epiphyseal line

A

the epiphyseal line is this calcified area where ur growth plate used to be

  • wheneevr u see the line, it is indicator tht u are looking at an adult bone
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13
Q

epiphysis

A

end part of a long bone

  • interior: spongy bone
  • exterior: compact
  • veins and arteries running along spongy and compact bone
  • articular cartilage: indicates tht ur looking at the epiphysis and not the diaphysis
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14
Q

diaphysis

A
  • medullary cavity
  • endosteum: membrane lining interior of the bone
  • yellow bone marrow
  • compact bone, dont really see spongy bone
  • periosteum
  • vascularization - pierce through periosteum and into the bone
  • collagen fiber bundles - attach periosteum to the most outer surface of the bone
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15
Q

gross anatomy of short, flat, and irregular bones

A
  • dont have medullary cavities
  • outside: periosteum, compact
  • inside: endosteum, spongy bone
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16
Q

periosteum

A

thick membrane tht covers the EXTERNAL bone surface

  • not present @ sites covered by articular cartilage
  • 2 layers:
    1. superficial layer = dense irregular CT
  1. deep layer: osteogenic (both osteoblasts and osteoclasts present)
  • sharpey’s fibers (aka perforating collagen fiber bundles) attach the periosteum to the bone tissue
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17
Q

osteoblast

A

immature bone cells which secrete the matrix tht will eventually become calcified bone

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18
Q

osteoclasts

A

breaks down bone

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19
Q

endosteum

A

thin, osteogenic membrane tht covers/lines the INTERNAL bone surfaces - BOTH osteoblasts and osteoclasts are present

  • locations:
    •central canal of osteons (specific to compact bone)
    •covering all spongy bone trabeculae
    a. medullary cavity
    b. epiphyses of long bones
    c. inside short, irregular, and flat bones
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20
Q

bone markings

A
  • the surface of a bone reflects the stresses applies to specific locations
  • projections
  • joint surfaces
  • depressions and openings
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21
Q

microscopic anatomy of compact bone

A
  1. osteon
  2. concentric lamellae
  3. circumferential lamellae
  4. endosteum: lines bony canals and covering trabeculae
  5. perforating (volkmann’s) canal
  6. Sharpey’s fibers aka perforating collagen fiber bundles

tip: C COVES (like sea coves)

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22
Q

concentric lamellae

A
  • look like tree rings outside of the osteons
  • calcified extracellular matrix tht is part of the osteon
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23
Q

osteon

A

aka Haversian system; made of multiple components - one of them is the central canal or the haversian itself; blood vessels and nerves inside the canal

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24
Q

circumferential lamellae

A

different from concentric lamellae

  • go around entire circumference of the bone
  • longitudinal columns; miniature weight-bearing pillars
  • there is abundant extracellular matrix b/w cells
  • nerve, vein, artery found inside canal
  • concentric lamellar around central canal
  • lacunae present with osteocytes inside
  • canaliculi
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25
Q

perforating (volkmann’s) canal

A

different from central canal

  • runs PERPENDICULAR to the central canal to connect b/w different osteons
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26
Q

canaliculi

A

tunnels tht run within the concentric lamellae

  • osteocytes use the tunnels to reach other osteocytes - communicate with others and transfer nutrients
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27
Q

interstitial lamellae

A

the calcified extracellular matrix tht is NOT part of the osteon but is essentially filling in the gaps between the osteons

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28
Q

collagen arrangement in the concentric lamellae

A

in each of the concentric lamellae, collagen fibers run in different directions allows it to resist twisting forces

  • these are different from sharpey’s fibers bc they are within the bone itself
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29
Q

microscopic anatomy of spongy bone

A
  1. trabecula = little beam; refers to the network structure
  2. each trabecula is solid bone (u will find osteocytes)
    •no cavities or vessels inside
    • receive nutrients from capillaries in the surrounding endosteum
  • red bone marrow found in the spaces
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30
Q

ossification/osteogenesis

A

process by which bone forms

  • 2 types of osteogenesis: intramembranous and endochondral
  • bone formation occurs in 4 situations:
  1. formation of bone in an embryo
  2. growth of bones until adulthood
  3. remodeling of bone throughout life
  4. repair of fractures
    (REAR - remodel, embryo, adulthood, repair; to rear is also to raise/grow, as in livestock)
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31
Q

intramembranous ossification

A

bone forms directly within mesenchyme arranged in layers that resemble membranes

  • most skull bones and the clavicles
  • mesenchyme start to form woven bone which ends up being the trabeculae. then u get some calcified matrix tht forms around the trabeculae
  • so, u start with mesenchyme -> spongy bone in middle -> compact bone -> periosteum on the outside
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32
Q

endochondral ossification

A

bone forms within HYALINE CARTILAGE, replacing it

  • all bones from base of skull down except for the clavicles
  • start with hyaline cartilage, then the diaphysis starts to calcify & the chondrocytes in this area start to die off, forming a cavity
  • spongy bone formation occurs after the formation of the cavity & vascularization occurs
  • the middle starts to hollow out and ossification occurs on either end of the bone
  • end up with an epiphyseal plate; this little piece of cartilage allows for bone growth to occur in childhood and adolescence
  • once u are an adult & stop growing, plate will calcify, so cartilage becomes bone
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33
Q

endochondral ossification

A

bone forms within HYALINE CARTILAGE, replacing it

  • all bones from base of skull down except for the clavicles
  • start with hyaline cartilage, then the diaphysis starts to calcify & the chondrocytes in this area start to die off, forming a cavity
  • spongy bone formation occurs after the formation of the cavity & vascularization occurs
  • the middle starts to hollow out and ossification occurs on either end of the bone
  • end up with an epiphyseal plate; this little piece of cartilage allows for bone growth to occur in childhood and adolescence
  • once u are an adult & stop growing, plate will calcify, so cartilage becomes bone
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34
Q

how do bones get LONGER?

A

involves 2 steps:
1. cartilage growth on the epiphysis side of the epiphyseal plate

  1. replacement of cartilage by bone on the diaphysis side
  • @ adulthood, the epiphyseal plates close and bone replaces all the cartilage leaving a bony structure called the epiphyseal line
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35
Q

how do bones get WIDER?

A

osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone tissue to the circumferential lamellae

osteoclasts remove bone from the inner diaphyseal wall at about the same rate

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36
Q

bone resorption

A

taking away bone tissue

  • osteoclasts secrete HCl & lysosomal enzymes
  • released ions (Ca2+) enter interstitial fluid and then the blood
  • collagen fibers and dead osteocytes are phagocytosed
  • if u get too much bone resorption, ur bones would be brittle
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37
Q

how to identify osteoclasts

A

they have ruffled borders which increases SA to maximize release of hcl and degradation enzymes

  • has multiple nuclei
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38
Q

joints

A

articulation

  • the rigid elements of the skeleton meet @ sites called articulations; not all joints are bone-bone
  • joints r classified structurally based on anatomical features
  • joints r classified functionally based on the type & degree of movement they permit
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39
Q

structural classification of joints

A
  • based on 2 criteria:
    1. presence/absence of a synovial cavity
  1. type of CT binding bones together
  • 3 classes:
    1. fibrous joints
    2. cartilaginous joints
    3. synovial joints
    (tip: FIBing CAn be a SIN)
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40
Q

synvovial joints

A

bones held juntos by ligaments, but synovial cavities present (encapsulated cavity with fluid that reduces friction)

  • ALL diarthrosis/freely movable
  • has ligaments that hold bones together
  • most joints in the body are synovial joints
  • 6 types
  1. planar/plane/gliding joint
  2. hinge
  3. pivot
  4. condyle
  5. saddle
  6. ball and socket
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41
Q

fibrous joints

A
  • not going to have synovial cavity
  • bones held together by dense collagen fibers (ligaments)
  • 3 examples;
  1. suture
  2. syndesmosis
  3. gomphosis
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42
Q

cartilaginous joints

A

bones held juntos by cartilage; no synovial cavity

  1. synchondroses
  2. symphyses

tip: symphonies in sync

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43
Q

functional classification of joints

A

relates to the type & degree of movement allowed @ the joint

  • 3 classes;
    1. synarthroses - immovable joints
  1. amphiarthroses - slightly movable joints
  2. diarthroses - freely movable joints
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44
Q

interosseus membrane

A

b/w ulna and radius is an example of a syndesmosis

  • collagen fibers
  • DOES NOT INCLUDE THE PROXIMAL RADIOULNAR JOINT
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45
Q

suture

A

fibrous joint

meeting points b/w 2 cranial bones w v short interconnecting collagen fibers; jig saw puzzle

synostoses = when fibrous tissue of sutures are calcified

  • immovable/synarthrosis
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46
Q

syndesmosis

A
  • fibrous joint
  • amphiarthrosis
    (slightly mobile) OR synarthrosis

joint held juntos by ligament; fibrous tissue can vary in length but is longer than in sutures

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47
Q

gomphosis

A
  • fibrous joint
  • peg-in-socket fibrous joint. periodontal ligaments. bone to tooth; holds tooth in socket
  • immobile
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48
Q

synchondroses

A

bones united by hyaline cartilage

  • synarthrosis
  • ex: epiphyseal plate = temporary synchondrosis
  • ex: joint b/w 1st rib and sternum (immovable joint)
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49
Q

symphyses

A

bones united by fibrocartilage; occur midline of the body

  • amphiarthrosis
  • ex: intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis
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50
Q

components of synovial joints

A
  1. ligament: dense regular ct proper
  2. joint cavity/synovial cavity with synovial fluid (lubricates and provides nutrients)
  3. articular cartilage - hyaline
  4. articular capsule/joint capsule
    • made of 2 layers: tough outer layer = fibrous layer; deeper layer = synovial membrane
  5. periosteum

tip: LIke ASAP

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51
Q

synovial capsule

A
  • sleeve-like capsule tht encloses the synovial cavity
  • has 2 layers:
  1. fibrous layer:
    * continuous with the periosteum
    * dense irregular ct proper
    * strengthens the joint
  2. synovial membrane;
    * covers any bony surface inside the joint capsule not covered by hyaline cartilage
    * loose CT
    * secretes synovial fluid
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52
Q

synovium/synovial fluid

A
  • viscous fluid seceted by inner synovial membrane
    • similar consistency as raw egg whites
    • filtrate of plasma
  • located in the joint cavity and in the articular cartilages
    • acts like a sponge
    • weeping lubrication allows cartilage to be nourished by the fluid
  • functions to:
    • reduce friction b/w bones
    • nourishes joint cartilages
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53
Q

cartilage associated with joints

A

articular cartilage made of hyaline cartilage

articular disc: shock absorber and makes ends of long bones a better fit; spans entire width of joint cavity; FIBROcartilage
* meniscus is DIFFERENT bc they dont span the entire width of the joint

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54
Q

reinforcing ligaments of synovial joints

A
  • band-like ligaments tht strengthen the joint
  • 3 types:
    1. capsular
    2. extracapsular
    3. intracapsular
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55
Q

capsular ligament

A

thickened band in the joint capsule

  • thickened areas of the fibrous layer of the capsule
  • ex: glenohumeral ligaments
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56
Q

extracapsular ligament

A

outside the joint capsule

  • ex: medial and lateral collateral ligaments
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57
Q

intracapsular ligament

A

inside the joint capsule; cross e/o inside the capsule

  • ex: anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments
  • ex: ligamentum teres (ligament of the head of the femur)
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58
Q

nerve and vascular supply of synovial joints

A
  • nervous innervation: pain and postional/stretch info
  • blood supply: nearby vessels send branches to ligaments and the synovial membrane
  • functional redundancy of the blood supply so u dont block blood flow when u move (bc some parts will be compressed)
    • allows overlapping supply of nerves and vessels
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59
Q

bursa

A

sac-like structure or round

  • have synovial fluid
  • elbows, knees, anywhere parts are rubbing against each other - so lots in joints
  • reduce friction b/w body parts which rub against e/o
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60
Q

tendon sheaths

A

tube-like bursa that wraps around tendons

  • hot dog: tendon sheath is the insulatory sheath or “bun” that wraps around the tendons; acts a cushion
  • carpal tunnel area has lots of tendon sheaths
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61
Q

types of synovial joints

A

categorized based on the shape of the articulating bones

  1. planar/gliding
  2. hinge
  3. pivot
  4. condyloid
  5. saddle
  6. ball and socket
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62
Q

movements permitted by synovial joints

A
  • as muscles contract, bones are moved @ the synovial joints
  • the shapes of the bones @ the joints largely dictate the movements allowed
  • movements are classified:
    • gliding movements
    • angular movements
    • rotation movements
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63
Q

gliding movements

A

synovial joints

  • sliding flat surfaces of 2 bones across e/o
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64
Q

angular movements

A
  1. flexion
  2. extension
  3. abduction
  4. adduction
  5. circumduction
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65
Q

flexion

A

decreasing the angle b/w 2 bones

  • type of angular movement @ synovial joint
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66
Q

extension

A

increasing the angle b/w bones from a flexed position BACK TO THE ANATOMIC POSITION

  • type of angular movement @ synovial joint
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67
Q

abduction

A

moving a limb AWAY from the body midline

tip: think of abduction as in kidnapping - take something away

  • type of angular movement @ synovial joint
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68
Q

adduction

A

move limb TOWARDS body midline

tip: think of it like ADDING something to ur body

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69
Q

circumduction

A

move limb or finger so that it describes a cone in space; not complete rotate bc 1 end is fixed in place

  • type of angular movement @ synovial joint
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70
Q

rotational movements at synovial joints

A

turning a bone around the longitudinal axis

  • COMPLETE ROTATION
  1. medial rotation
  2. lateral rotation
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71
Q

medial rotation

A

rotate towards medial plane

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72
Q

lateral rotation

A

rotate away from medial plane

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73
Q

plane/planar joint

A
  • synovial joint
  • aka gliding joint
  • have flat articular surfaces for smooth gliding motion
  • ex: intermetacarpal and intercarpal jts; intertarsal and joints b/w vertebral articular surfaces
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74
Q

hinge joint

A

synovial joint

  • 1 is cylindrical in nature and 1 will act as a trough
  • allows flexion and extension
  • ex: elbow joints, interphalangeal joints (upper knuckles), knee joints
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75
Q

hyperextension

A

increasing the joint angle BEYOND THE ANATOMICAL POSITION

  • not the same as extension
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76
Q

pivot joint

A

synovial joint

  • sleeve around a rod
  • ex: proximal radioulnar joints, atlantoaxial joint C1 C2
  • for rotation; supination (palm up) and pronation (palm down)
77
Q

condylar joint

A

synovial joint

  • oval articular surfaces
  • flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction
  • metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints, wrist joints
78
Q

saddle joint

A

synovial joint

  • articular surfaces are both concave and convex
  • adduction and abduction; flexion and extension
  • carpometacarpal joints of thumbs; sternoclavicular joint
79
Q

opposition

A

special thumb movement where it touches the other fingers or reaches across the palms

  • able to do this bc of the saddle joint
80
Q

ball and socket joint

A
  • synovial joint
  • flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation

ex: shoulder joints and hip joints

81
Q

elevation

A

specialized movement; lifting a body part superiorly

  • ex: mandible
82
Q

depression

A

moving a body part inferiorly; specialized movement

  • ex: mandible
83
Q

protraction

A

specialized movement; moving a body part in the anterior direction

  • ex, jutting ur jaw out
84
Q

retraction

A

specialized mvnt; moving a body part in the posterir direction

  • ex: moving ur jaw inwards
85
Q

inversion

A

turning the sole of the foot medially

86
Q

eversion

A

turning the sole of the foot laterally

87
Q

dorsalflexion

A

specialized movement in ur feet

  • lifting the foot so its superior surface approaches the shin (lifting ur foot up)
88
Q

plantar flexion

A

depressing the foot elevating the heel

  • point ur foot downwards
  • specialized mvnt of the foot
89
Q

sternoclavicular joint

A

synovial joint, saddle joint

  • ligaments:
    1. costoclavicular ligament
    2. interclavicular ligament
    3. anterior sternoclavicular ligament
    4. posterior sternoclavicular ligament
  • these ligaments make it VERY DIFFICULT TO DISLOCATE CLAVICLE FROM STERNUM
  • more likely to break collarbone than to dislocate it
  • can elevate, depress, protract, retract, rotate
90
Q

glenohumeral joint

A

where scapula meets humerus

  • is a ball and socket joint; permits lots of movement, but less stable
  • coracohumeral ligament
  • joint capsule + 3 weak glenohumeral ligaments
91
Q

femorocoxal joint

A

head of femur + pelvic

  • ball (head of femur) and socket (acetabulum) joint
  • acetabular labrum deepens the socket to allow for head of femur to fit better
  • synovial joint, has synovial cavity
  • articular capsule present
  • ligamentum teres present inside joint capsule
92
Q

capsular ligaments of the hip (of the femorocoxal joint)

A

bands from the fibrous sheaths of the articular capsule

  • there are 3:
  1. iliofemoral ligament
  2. ischiofemoral ligament
  3. pubofemoral ligament
93
Q

femorotibial joint (knee joint)

A

largest, most complex joint

  • knee joint DOES NOT INCLUDE THE FIBULA - fibula has weight-bearing function so it’s not pt of the joint
  • modified hinge joint (synovial)
    • main action = flexion/extension
    • some med/lat rotation
  • extremely strong & stable bc lots of ligaments and muscles
  • shared joint space with the femoropatellar joint (knee cap) (gliding joint)
94
Q

knee structures

A
  1. medial condyle
  2. hyaline cartilage
  3. lateral condyle of femur
  4. tibia
  5. fibula; femur does not articulate with fibula
  6. medial & lateral menisci: fibrocartilage discs that do not expand the entire width of joint
  7. patella + patellar ligament, which extends from patella to tibia
  8. quadriceps tendon
  9. anterior cruciate ligament (ACL): intracapsular ligament; crosses over to the knee
  10. posterior cruciate ligament (PCL): intracapsular lig.; starts behind @ tibia and cross synov cavity and attaches to the femur
  11. tibial collateral ligament: extracapsular ligament; femur to tibia; aka MCL (medial collateral ligament)
  12. fibular collateral ligament: femur to fibula; extracapsular ligament (LCL)
95
Q

knee joint muscles and tendons

A
  1. quadriceps femoris muscle on top of femur
  2. tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle attaches to the patella
  3. medial patellar retinaculum & lateral patellar retinaculum: bands of CT that reinforces the knee
96
Q

chondromalacia patellae

A
97
Q

myocyte

A

muscle cell, muscle fiber

98
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of the muscle fiber

99
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of a muscle fiber

100
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

A

ER of a muscle fiber

  • stores Ca2+
  • webbed structure around the individual myofibrils
  • ends are enlarged/bulbed: this is called the terminal cisternae
101
Q

muscle types

A
  1. skeletal
  2. smooth
  3. cardiac
102
Q

skeletal muscle

A

elongated, multinucleate, striated

  • voluntary control
103
Q

cardiac

A

striated, intercalated discs b/w cardiac cells to make sure contractions are synchronous, uninucleate

  • involuntary control
104
Q

smooth muscle

A

uninucleate, not striated

  • involuntary control
  • hollow organs of GI track, urinary bladder, stomach, esophagus - propels things through
105
Q

all muscle tissue characteristics

A
  1. contractility: ability to shorten & gener8 force; muscles only PULL on structure it’s attached to

2.excitability: ability to respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals

  1. extensibility: ability to stretch without being damaged
  2. elasticity: ability to return to its original length/shape following distension; recoil back
106
Q

functions of skeletal muscle

A
  1. movement
  2. posture and joint stabilization
  3. open/close body passageways (sphincters)
  4. thermogenesis; when skeletal muscle contracts (voluntary & involuntary), it gener8s heat; also prevents heat loss by contracting smooth muscle involuntarily (goosebumps & dartos muscle, which houses the scrotum)
107
Q

CT components of skeletal muscles

A
  1. epimysium: CT that covers the entire muscle
  2. Perimyseium; wrap fascicles (a bundle of individual muscle fibers); within the fascicle, we have individual muscle fibers
  3. endomysium: b/w individual muscle fibers
108
Q

tendon

A

CT attachment of a skeletal muscle to a bone’s periosteum

  • continuous w/ all 3 CT sheaths of a muscle beyond the length of muscle fibers
  • cord-like (think of the end of a tootsie roll)
109
Q

aponeurosis

A

broad, flat tendon instead of cord-like shape; attaches muscle to bone or skin

110
Q

muscular attachment to the bone

A
  • direct attachment: the length of the CT is very short so it looks like the muscle attaches to the bone directly
  • indirect attachment: tendon/CT is clearly visible in attaching muscle to bone; most common type
  • origin vs insertion
111
Q

origin

A

the placement/location on bone where muscle attach where the bone doesn’t move when the muscle contracts

112
Q

insertion

A

location where muscle attaches to a bone that will move

ex: when the brachialis contracts, it shortens, pulling on the insertion point, causing ulnar and radius to flex

113
Q

strains vs sprains

A
  • strains: muscle injury or tendon injury; tendon is a CT but part of the sheaths that contain muscle fibers
    • might see bruising - associated with muscle
  • sprain: ligament injury
114
Q

nervous innervation of muscle

A

each muscle is typically innervated by 1 nerve which branches extensively within the CT sheaths

  • each axon making up the nerve synapses with multiple muscle cells
115
Q

blood supply of muscles

A

each muscle is typically supplied by 1 artery which branches extensively within the CT sheaths

  • capillary networks within the endomysium are WAVY in resting muscle to allow for extensibility of this tissue; wavy shape allows muscles to be supplied even when they contract or relax
116
Q

skeletal muscle fiber

A

striations caused by proteins

  • nuclei are located peripherally so it is not going to be centralized in the muscle fiber bc there are so many diff organelles within the muscle fibers
  • myocytes are cylindrical
117
Q

striations

A

due to the organization of various proteins within the muscle

  • myofibrils make up myofibers (myocyte); proteins within myofibrils allow contraction to happen
118
Q

myofibrils

A

specialized contractile organelles WITHIN myofibers (muscle cells)

  • each myofibril is composed of a series of sarcomeres
  • run entire length of the muscle fiber
  • myofibrils are not just actin and myosin

made of 3 types of proteins:
1. contractile proteins
2. regulatory
3. structural

119
Q

sarcomere

A

basic contractile unit of muscle; make up myofibrils; segments of myofibrils

  • have overlapping proteins that give striated look
  • zed (Z) lines/discs: looks like zig-zag/zipper; tells u where the 2 ends of ur sarcomere are
  • each sarcomere is made of myofilaments
  • thin and thick filaments
120
Q

thin filaments

A

extend from Z line to middle of sarcomere

made of actin (protein); each thin filament made of 2 strands of actin

  • 6 thin filaments interact/surround each thick filament
121
Q

thick filaments

A

darker bands extending from the center of the sarcomere

made of myosin

  • ends of myosin thick filaments have heads that look like golf clubs - heads interact with thin filament to contract
122
Q

A band of sarcomere

A

length of myosin filament (thick filament)

123
Q

H zone of sarcomere

A

area with only thick myosin filament - no overlap with thin filament

124
Q

I band of sarcomere

A

region with only thin filament

125
Q

M line of sarcomere

A

series of proteins that run down middle of sarcomere ; region with only thick myosin filament, no overlap with thin filament

126
Q

elastic/titin filaments

A

large proteins; look like coiled springs; allows sarcomeres to stretch by uncoiling and recoil

  • anchor myosin in place

tip: Titin sounds like Titan, Ariel’s dad = sea = ships = ANCHORing ships -> titin anchors myosin

also Titan, the moon, is far from earth, it would be a stretch to get there -> titin = stretch

127
Q

contraction and filament movement

A
  • thin filaments are pulled in towards the M line of sarcomere
  • sliding motion
128
Q

contractile proteins

A

also make up myofibrils

  • actin myofilaments
  • myosin myofilaments
129
Q

regulatory proteins

A

make up myofibrils

  • troponin
  • tropomyosin

determine whether or not the actin and myosin filaments can interact

  • actin has myosin binding sites
  • tropomyosin lays on top of myosin binding sites -> can block myosin heads from attaching to binding sites
  • troponin is attached to tropomyosin NOT actin - when Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum, it binds to troponin -> causes conformational change -> causes tropomyosin to lift off of binding sites -> now contraction can occur bc myosin heads can bind to actin
130
Q

structural proteins

A

make up myofibrils

  • titin (inside sarcomere)
  • dystrophin (@ ends of the myofibril)
  • titin: allows for elastic recoil of sarcomere -> prevents damage to muscle fibers when it gets stretched; anchors myosin thick filaments
  • dystrophin: anchor myofilament to the sarcolemma
131
Q

myofilaments

A
  • 2 actin strands twist to form helix -> produces a thin filament
  • hundreds of myosin make up thick filament
  • myosin heads reach towards actin and pull in
  • power stroke = myosin heads pulling in actin -> forces sarcomere to shorten/contract
132
Q

t-tubules

A

transverse tubules

  • tunneling in the of sarcolemma/invagination of sarcolemma
  • associated with the sarcoplasmic reticulum
133
Q

triad

A

“oreo”: t-tubule = cream part; 2 cookies = terminal cisternae of the SR

134
Q

sliding filament mechanism of contraction

A

myosin heads attach to myosin binding sites on actin and undergoes power stroke, pulling actin towards the M line

  • it looks like the thick and thin filaments are sliding over e/o & incr amt of overlap b/w the 2
  • contraction increases overlap of filaments, but THE LENGTH OF THE FILAMENTS NEVER CHANGE
135
Q

change in appearance with contraction

A
  • relaxed:
    • I band is large & light in color
  • contract:
    • I band is smaller
    • A band stays the same size bc length of myosin filaments stay the same
    • H zone decreases in size bc filaments are pulled in
    • space b/w Z lines decreases bc sarcomere is shortened
136
Q

nervous innervation of skeletal muscle

A

1 named nerve tht extends through the muscle and branches out

  • motor unit: motor neuron + all the muscle fibers it is innervating; specific type of neuron which controls multiple muscle cells/fibers
  • motor neuron: sends directions to the muscle fiber to contract
  • motor unit allows for recruitment
  • neuron does not touch physically touch muscle fiber -> communicates via neuromuscular junction
137
Q

motor unit recruitment

A

neuron sends a signal down to 1 nerve that can control various motor units depending on the action

  • either send to a motor unit that controls a large number of muscle fibers to perform a large action or a small motor unit that controls a small amount of muscle fibers to perform a small action
138
Q

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

A

interface b/w neuron and muscle fiber

  • 3 main components:
  1. axon terminal: end of neuron; aka terminal bouton; receives signal that is coming down the entire neuron -> ca2+ channels open so ca2+ moves into the axon terminal from the extracellular fluid
    • this signals the synaptic vesicles -> migrate to end of axon terminal -> exocytosis to release acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) into synaptic cleft
  • enzymes in synaptic cleft break down ACh so we dont have sustained contractions
    2. junctional folds of the sarcolemma: incr SA to pack in acetylcholine receptors to absorb acetylcholine
    • motor end plate = where receptors are in the junctional folds; area tht dips down
  1. synaptic cleft: space b/w the ends of the neuron/AXON TERMINAL and the sarcolemma of muscle cell
  • neuron not directly connected to muscle
  • electrical signal move across surface of sarcolemma and then down the t-tubules until it reaches the terminal cisternae of the SR -> causes Ca2+ to be released -> bind to troponin -> tropomyosin leaves binding site -> myosin head can bind to actin and pull it to contract
139
Q

skeletal muscle fiber types

A

muscles have many fiber types, but some fiber types are more prevalent in certain types of muscles

  1. Type I muscle fiber
  2. Type IIa
  3. Type IIb/IIx
140
Q

type I muscle fiber

A

slow oxidative (so)

  • have high myoglobin content - red color
  • slow contraction
  • ATP production: aerobic; needs o2 to make atp
  • resists fatigue; does not tire out easily
  • small fiber diameter
  • maintains posture and used for endurance activities
141
Q

type IIa muscle fiber

A

fast ox-glycolytic (fog)

  • high amt of myoglobin content - pink color
  • fast contraction
  • atp production: aerobic & anaerobic
  • moderate fatigue resistance
  • intermediate fiber diameter
  • for walking and sprinting
142
Q

type IIb/IIx muscle fiber

A

fast-glycolytic (fg)

  • low amt of myoglobin content -
  • fast contraction
  • does not need o2 to make atp
  • low fatigue resistance; tire quickly
  • white color (low myoglobin)
  • large fiber diameter
  • for rapid and intense movement for short duration; ex SPRINTING
143
Q

myoglobin

A

protein in skeletal muscle tht is responsible for transporting o2 in ur muscles

  • gives red appearance to rare steak tht looks like blood
144
Q

how many voluntarily controlled muscles do u have?

A

700

145
Q

fascicular arrangement of muscles

A

fascicles are bundles of fibers within a skeletal muscle surrounded by perimysium

  • they are arranged differently in various muscles
  • fascicle arrangement reflects function:
    *longer fibers -> gr8r range of motion
    *more fibers -> gr8r strength
146
Q

fascicles and muscle shapes

A

strength of a muscle and the direction of its pull are determined partly by the orientation of its fascicles

  1. fusiform
  2. parallel
  3. convergent
  4. unipennate
  5. bipennate
  6. multipennate
  7. circular

2.

147
Q

fusiform muscle shape

A

belly tapers at the ends to the tendons

ex: biceps brachialis

148
Q

parallel muscle shape

A

fascicles arranged parallel; doesn’t taper; run longitudinally

ex: rectus abdominis

149
Q

convergent muscle shape

A

broad muscle (origin) that tapers to a tendon (insertion)

  • dorito-shaped
  • pectoralis major
150
Q

unipennate muscle shape

A

fascicle is coming at angle to the tendon

  • the fibers come @ 1 angle
  • palmar interosseous; extensor digitorum longus (EDL)
151
Q

bipennate muscle shape

A

fibers run @ 2 angles coming in towards the tendon

  • ex: rectus femoris
152
Q

multipennate muscle shape

A

fascicular arrangement comes in towards the tendon @ multiple angles;

  • ex: deltoid; deltoid is not a convergent muscle bc multiple muscles run through the muscle itself & fascicles run obliquely towards the tendons
153
Q

circular muscle shape

A
  • fascicles arranged in concentric rings
  • always found around external body openings (sphincters)

ex: orbicularis oculi, also orbicularis oris (muscle around ur mouth)

154
Q

pennate muscles

A

short fascicles tht attach obliquely to a tendon that runs the length of the muscle

  • “penna” = feather
  • uni, bi, or multi-
155
Q

parallel muscle

A

fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle

  • fusiform - more bulged in the center b4 tapering @ both ends
  • straplike: flatter; ex: sartorius muscle
156
Q

lever systems

A

describes the relationship b/w bone and muscle

  • load: what are we trying to move; ex: moving a hand or holding an external weight
  • lever: bone
  • fulcrum: pivot point where the movement is occuring
  • effort: muscle
157
Q

2nd class lever system

A

load in the middle, fulcrum and effort on opposite sides

  • ex: when u tip toe.
    *effort is exerted by calf muscles pulling upward on the heel
    • joints of the ball of the foot = fulcrum
    • the weight of the body = load
  • think of this as someone lifting the handle of a wheelbarrow

LOAD IS ALWAYS IN THE MIDDLE

158
Q

1st-class lever system

A

think of it as a see-saw; fulcrum in the middle & on either side of the fulcrum, u have a load on one side and the effort on the other
* ex: this lever system raises ur head off ur chest- the posterior neck muscles provide the effort; the atlanto-occipital joint = fulcrum; weight to be lifted = facial skeleton

FULCRUM IS ALWAYS IN THE MIDDLE

159
Q

3rd-class lever system

A

most common

  • DO NOT CONFUSE WITH 1ST CLASS; examine the INSERTION
  • the insertion will go b4 the fulcrum, so the EFFORT is actually in the middle instead of the fulcrum
  • ex: ur arm curling a dumbbell
    *flexing the forearm by the biceps brachii muscle; effort exerted on the proximal radius of the forearm; fulcrum = elbow joint; load = hand & distal end of the forearm
160
Q

muscle actions and interactions

A
  • a muscle tht crosses a joint, it acts at that joint
  • muscles pull, not push
  • muscles tht produce opposite actions lie on opposite sides of a joint
    • agonist/prime mover
    • antagonist
  • the roles switch depending on the action
    • flexing arm: biceps = agonist, triceps = antagonist
    • extending arm: triceps agonist, biceps antagonist
  • if the same action occurs at the same joints with the same muscles being used, the lever class will still be the same (ex: flexing and extending ur arm in the frontal plane vs horizontal)
161
Q

agonist

A

prime mover; contracts to cause an action

162
Q

antagonist

A

stretches and yields to the effects of the agonist

163
Q

synergist

A

helper muscle, not primary muscle; acts to assist an agonist in 1 of 2 ways:

  • add extra force
  • reducing undesirable movements
    • canceling out unwanted movements
      a) making a fist
      b) muscles with multiple actions @ a joint
    • ex of a specific type of synergist: fixators: fix a bone in place
      a) scapulae fixators during arm movements; keep shoulders fixed so u can just move ur arm
164
Q

naming skeletal muscles

A
  • muscles named according to several descriptors:
  1. location
  2. shape
  3. relative size
  4. fascicle arrangement
  5. location of attachments
  6. number of origins
  7. action
  • oftentimes, multiple criteria are used to name a muscle

ex: extensor carpi radialis longus

165
Q

action can be inferred by position of muscle as it crosses a joint: anterior and posterior

A
  1. muscle tht crosses on the ANTERIOR side of a joint = flexion
    ex: pectoralis major
  2. muscle tht crosses on the POSTERIOR side of a joint = extension
    ex: latissimus dorsi
  • these don’t apply to knee and ankle bc the lower limb is rotated during development
    • the muscles tht cross these joints posteriorly = flexion, and anteriorly = extensiom
166
Q

action can be inferred by position of muscle as it crosses a joint: lateral and medial

A
  1. muscle tht crosses on the lateral side of a joint = abduction
    ex: deltoid
  2. muscle that crosses on medial side of a joint = adduction
    ex: teres major (antagonist of deltoid)
167
Q

muscle compartments of the limbs

A
  • fascial compartments grp muscles of similar origin & function
  • most compartments are innervated by a single nerve
  1. upper limb compartments
  2. lower limb compartments
168
Q

upper limb muscle compartments

A
  • anterior/posterior brachial
  • anterior/posterior antebrachial
169
Q

lower limb muscle compartments

A

-anterior/posterior/medial thigh

  • anterior/posterior/lateral leg
170
Q

anterior brachial compartment

A
  • coracobrachialis & brachialis
  • biceps brachii
  • actions @ the shoulder/elbow: flexion (elbow) & adduction of the arm (shoulder)
  • innervation: musculocutaneous nerve
171
Q

posterior brachial compartment

A

trceps brachii

  • different origins:
    *medial head: posterior shaft
    *lateral: post shaft
    *long: infraglenoid tubercle
  • insertion: olecranon process of ulna
  • elbow extension; assists in shoulder adduction
  • innervation: radial nerve
172
Q

posterior brachial compartment continued

A

anconeus

  • origin: lateral epicondyle of humerus

**tip: ALE (anconeus lateral epicondyle)

  • insertion: olecranon process of ulna

tip: IOP

  • protonation (palm up to palm down)
173
Q

anterior antebrachial compartment

A
  • 3 layers: superficial, intermediate, deep
  • flexion of wrist and fingers
  • innervation: median nerve (innervates the rest od the digits) and ulnar nerve (only innervates the pinky finger and half of the ring finger)
174
Q

posterior antebrachial compartment

A
  • multiple layers: superficial and deep
  • extensors; extend wrist and fingers
  • innervation: radial nerve
175
Q

anterior thigh compartment

A

quadriceps femoris

  • different origins:
    *rectus femoris: AIIS
    *vastus lateralis: gr8r trochanter, intertrochanteric line, linea aspera
    *vastus medialis: linea aspera, intertrochanteric line
    *vastus intermedius: anterolateral, proximal femoral shaft
  • common insertion @ patella & tibial tuberosity
  • flex hip & knee extension
  • innervation: femoral nerve
  • sartorius muscle: origin = ASIS; i: proximal tibia
176
Q

posterior thigh compartment

A

hamstrings: biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus

  • biceps femoris
    • o: ischial tuberosity, linea aspera
    • i: head of fibula and lateral condyle of tibia
  • semitendinosus:
    • o: ischial tuberosity
    • i: medial, upper tibial shaft
  • semimembranosus:
    • o: ischial tuberosity
    • i: medial condyle of tibia
  • hip: extension
  • knee: flexion
  • innervation: tibial nerve (portion of sciatic nerve)
177
Q

medial thigh compartment

A

adductors

  1. adductor brevis, longus, magnus, pectineus:
    * o: pubis or ischium
    * i: medial femur
  2. gracilis:
    * o: inferior pubic and ischial rami
    * i: medial tibial shaft
  • hip: adduction and medial rotation
  • slight knee flexion
  • innervation: obturator nerve
178
Q

anterior leg compartment

A
  1. tibialis anterior
    - dorsiflexion
    - inversion of the foot
  2. extensor hallucis longus & 3. fibularis tertius
    - dorsiflexion
    - extension of the big toe
  3. extensor digitorum longus
    - dorsiflexion and extension of the toe
  • innervation: deep fibular nerve
179
Q

lateral leg component

A
  1. fibularis longus
  2. fibularis brevis
  • plantarflexion of the ankle; eversion of the foot; no action @ the knee
  • innervation: superficial fibular nerve
180
Q

posterior leg compartment: superifical

A

triceps surae

  1. gastrocnemius on either side
    • o: femoral condyles
    • i: posterior side of the calcaneus (heel)
  2. soleus: deep to the gastrocnemius
    • o: superior tibia/fibula
    • i: posterior side of the calcaneus
  • knee flexion and plantarflexion
  • innervation: tibial nerve
181
Q

posterior leg compartment: deep

A
  1. tibialis posterior
  2. flexor digitorum longus
  3. popliteus
  4. flexor hallucis longus
  • plantarflexion; toe flexion
  • innervation: tibial nerve
182
Q

case study: compartment syndrome

A

when a muscle swells from either trauma or overuse, pressure within the compartment containing the muscle increases

  • compressed vessels -> ischemia, swelling
  • compressed nerves -> pain or numbness
  • in emergent cases, a fasciotomy must b performed
183
Q

if someone has anterior compartment syndrome of the leg, which nerve would be affected?

A

deep fibular nerve

184
Q

appositional growth of cartilage

A

outside growth; chondrocytes in the perichondrium secrete new matrix

185
Q

interstitial growth of cartilage

A

chondrocytes WITHIN the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix

186
Q

projections tht r sites of muscle and ligament attachment

A
  1. epicondyle
  2. tubercle
  3. line
  4. process
  5. tuberosity
  6. trochanter
  7. crest
  8. spine
187
Q

bone surfaces tht form joints

A
  1. condyle
  2. facet
  3. head
188
Q

bone depressions and openings for vessels and nerves

A
  1. fossa
  2. fissure
  3. notch
  4. groove
  5. meatus
  6. sinus

tip: GROOVy SINgers FOr FISh NOT MEAT

apk2100c (4 decks)

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