AP Psychology EXAM Flashcards
What perspective?
- depression is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain, hereditary factors or damaged brain structures
biological perspective
What perspective?
- depression is caused by hidden unconscious conflicts buried deep in the past
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
Who created the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective?
Sigmund Freud
What perspective?
- a person does depressive behaviors because they learned that it can gain some sort of reward (pity-attention) or they’re imitating someone in their life that modeled this kind of behavior when faced with similar situations
behavioral perspective
Who created the behavioral perspective?
John B. Watson
What perspective?
- one becomes depressed by constantly thinking depressing thoughts, having a negative, pessimistic outlook on life
cognitive perspective
What perspective?
- depression is caused by poverty, poor economic opportunity, alienation, low status
socialcultural perspective
Who created the socialcultural perspective?
Lev Vygotsky
What perspective?
- depression is caused by one not being able to live up to your potential; one feels stifled, kept down, alienated
humanistic perspective
What is the tendency of people to overestimate their ability or predict an outcome that couldn’t have been predicted?
hindsight bias
What type of research method describes behaviors?
descriptive
What type of research method explores relationships between 2 factors?
correlational
What type of research method seeks to prove causation?
experimental
What research method (descriptive)?
- study individual or small group
- focus on unique situations
Strength – helps highlight need for more research
Weakness – highly subjective, not representative of all
case study
What research method (descriptive)?
- polls, consists of questions, random sample
- aims to estimate from a representative sample attitudes/behaviors of whole population
Strength: Data from tons of people
Weakness: lacks depth, wording effect
survey
What research method (descriptive)?
- watching organism in natural habitat
- observer effect
Strength: they do not know they are observed, no interference
Weakness: doesn’t explain behavior
naturalistic observation
What research method (descriptive)?
- study behavior as subject ages
- twins are great for this study
Strength: observation & correlation used, more than one observation done
Weakness: Expensive, takes long time, subject can leave anytime
longitudinal
What research method (descriptive)?
- study how behavior/thoughts vary across different age groups
Strength: Provide data on entire population, can take minimal time to conduct
Weakness: Must control for difference other than age, volunteer bias
cross-sectional
What research method?
- you study something you can’t ethically make someone do, also these studies are conducted after the fact - no random sample
- ‘Quasi-experiment’ (you can’t manipulate the IV)
- Ex. Impact of obesity on financial success, alcoholism on divorce
ex post facto
What type of research?
- measuring the relationship between two factors
- use surveys, naturalistic observations
- correlation does not equal causation
correlational
What is a correlation coefficient?
A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors relate to one another
- range is from -1 to +1
- range gets weaker the closer you get to zero
What is a confounding variable?
prove that A causes B
- anything that could cause change in B, that is not A
What is random sampling?
- to select participants from population
- allows you to generalize results
What is random assignment?
- to divide participants into groups
- controls confounding variables
What are the measures of central tendency?
mean, median, and mode
What is mode?
the most common number
What is mean?
average number
What is median?
middle number
What is bimodal distribution?
when you have two modes
- likelihood a result is caused by chance
- can be no greater than 5% for there to be statistical significance
p-value
What are the 6 ethical guidelines?
- informed consent from participants
- confidentiality/anonymity
- protection from significant physical/mental harm
- no EXTREME deception
- debrief on purpose and results
- right to withdraw
What do the dendrites do (in a neuron)?
receive messages from other cells, passes the message to the cell body
What does the axon do?
passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons
What do the terminal branches of the axon do?
forms junctions with other cells
What does the myelin sheath do?
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
What is multiple sclerosis caused by?
degeneration of the myelin sheath which makes it difficult for neurons to transmit messages
What is the refractory period of a neuron?
the recovery period after an action potential; neuron cannot fire again until the refractory period is over
What is the resting potential of a neuron?
fluid inside axon is negative charge, fluid outside axon is positive charged, in this state the neuron is polarized
What is the all-or-none law?
a neuron will fire, or it won’t (there is not in-between)
What does the axon terminal do?
stores neurotransmitters that release and attach to other neurons to send
Where are neurotransmitters stored?
stored in sacs called vesicles in the axon’s terminal buttons
What is a reuptake mechanism?
once the neighboring neuron receives the message, the neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the axon of the sending neuron
What neurotransmitter?
- influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
- oversupply linked to schizophrenia
- undersupply linked to Parkinson’s disease
dopamine
What neurotransmitter?
- affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
- undersupply linked to depression
serotonin
What neurotransmitter?
- helps control alertness and arousal
- undersupply can depress mood
norepinephrine
What neurotransmitter activates skeletal muscles and carries out voluntary movements and is involved in memory?
acetylcholine
What is Parkinson’s disease?
muscle spasms/loss of motor control
What nervous system?
- the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
What nervous system?
- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
peripheral nervous system
What do sensory (afferent) neurons do?
SAME
neurons carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
What do motor (efferent) neurons do?
SAME
neurons carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
What is responsible for this automatic reflex?
central nervous system
What does sympathetic nervous system do?
arouses and expends energy
What does parasympathetic nervous system do?
calms and conserves energy
What does the endocrine system do?
a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
What is the pituitary gland controlled by?
hypothalamus
What does the pituitary gland do?
promote growth as well as generally managing the rest of the endocrine system
What does the pineal gland do?
produces melatonin, hormone which modulates sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles
What does adrenal glands do?
autonomic nervous system gets its orders from the adrenal glands
What is the brainstem responsible for?
automatic survival functions aka basic functions
What does the medulla do?
controls automatic nervous system functions like heartbeat and breathing
What does reticular formation do?
arousal and consciousness
What does the pons do?
helps coordinates movement, regulates waking and relaxing
What does the cerebellum do?
helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance
What does the thalamus do?
takes incoming signals from all senses (except smell) and directs it to the correct higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching
What is the limbic system?
associated with memory, emotions and drives (food/reproductive…old instincts)
- hypothalamus
- amygdala
- hippocampus
What does the hypothalamus do?
drinking, eating, body temp, helps govern the ES* via Pituitary Gland, helps keep you at homeostasis, linked to rewards
What does the amygdala do?
linked to emotion; specifically fear and aggression
What does the hippocampus do?
linked to memory, helps store memories
The body’s ultimate control and information-processing center, enables higher level thinking/complex thoughts…basically everything that doesn’t have to do with survival
cerebral cortex/cerebrum
What part of the cerebral cortex?
- decision-making, problem-solving
- conscious thought
- attention
- emotional and behavioral control
- speaking
- personality, Phineas Gage
- intelligence
- body movement
- planning
frontal lobe
What part of the cerebral cortex?
- visual processing and interpretation
occipital lobe
What part of the cerebral cortex?
- sensory information (touch, pressure, pain, vibration, temperature) processing
- math and spatial reasoning
parietal lobes
What part of the cerebral cortex?
- language comprehension, speech formation (Wernicke’s area)
- hearing
- memory
- recognizing faces
temporal lobes
What is Broca’s area?
responsible for producing speech (if damaged, person will have broken speech)
What is Wernicke’s area?
responsible for comprehension of speech (if damaged, person will have fluent speech but will make no sense)
What is the corpus collosum?
a bundle of nerve fibers that joins the left and right hemispheres of the brain
What sleep stage?
- sleep marked by slow breathing and irregular brain waves (different from the slow alpha waves of a relaxed awake state)
- may experience hallucinations, or the hypnagogic sensation of falling in this stage of sleep
NREM 1
What sleep stage?
- periodic sleep spindles, bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity (theta waves)
NREM 2
What sleep stage?
- brain emits large slow delta waves associated with deep sleep
NREM 3
What sleep stage?
- the recurring state of sleep which vivid dreams commonly occur
- heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and irregular
REM (rapid eye movement)
What sleep disorder?
- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
insomnia
What sleep disorder?
- uncontrollable sleep attacks, sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
narcolepsy
What sleep disorder?
- temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
sleep apnea
What are lucid dreams?
the awareness that one is in a dream, can result in the ability of a person to control aspects of their dream
What type of psychoactive drug?
- alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates
depressants
What type of psychoactive drug?
- caffeine, nicotine, methamphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy
stimulants
What type of psychoactive drug?
- LSD, THC (marijuana)
hallucinogens
can only attend to one or few sensory stimuli fully at a time while ignoring others
selective attention
What type of selective inattention?
- failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
inattentional blindness
What type of selective inattention?
- failing to notice changes in the environment even when it’s within your field of vision
change blindness
What type of selective inattention?
- lack of awareness of our decisions and preferences
choice blindness
What is the conversion of one form of energy into another?
transduction
Minimum amount of stimulus needed in order for you to experience a sensation (50% 0f the time)
absolute threshold
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, predisposing one’s perception, memory or response
priming
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness (flashes of images or words etc), they are there, but we are no consciously aware of them
subliminal
just noticeable difference, minimal amount of change needed to detect stimuli
difference threshold
Where does light enter through (the eye)?
cornea
What focus the incoming rays into an upside down image?
lens
What converts light to electrical impulses, which creates images you can see?
retina
What does the fovea help with?
visual acuity (sharpness)
What are feature detectors?
We have specific cells that see the lines, edges, curves and other features
What is the young-Helmholtz-trichromatic theory?
These three types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors
RED BLUE GREEN
main binocular cue for perceiving depth
retinal disparity
inward turning of your eyes that occurs when you look at an object that is close to you
convergence
An illusion of movement when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off on quick succession
phi phenomenon
In the ear, where are neural impulses made?
cochlea
What is the gate-control theory?
The “gate” is opened by activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
Taste cells are chemical sensitive receptors located in
taste bud clusters
Receptors are sensitive to 5 basic taste qualities. What are they?
Sweetness
Saltiness
Sourness
Bitterness
Umami
What does olfaction mean?
smell
Do olfactory signals pass through the thalamus?
no
What does the kinesthetic system do?
tell us where our body parts are
What does our vestibular sense do?
- tells us where our body is oriented in space
- our sense of balance
What is Classical Conditioning (Watson/Pavlov)?
learned response occurs involuntarily in anticipation of some stimulus
What is Operant Conditioning (Skinner/Thorndike)?
voluntary and goal directed behavior which is shaped and maintained by consequences - repeat the good ones, avoid the bad ones
Who thought of observational learning?
Bandura
Father of Behaviorism,” Little Albert Experiment
John B. Watson
What 5 terms make up classical conditioning?
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
What is acquisition (classical conditioning)?
the initial stage of learning or conditioning
What is extinction (classical conditioning)?
A procedure that leads to gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of conditioned response
What is Spontaneous Recovery (classical conditioning)?
Occurs when previously extinguished conditioned repsonse suddenly reappears after a period of training
What is generalization (classical conditioning)?
The tendency to respond to stimulus that are similar to a conditioned reponse?
What is discrimination (classical conditioning)?
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned reponse and other irrelevant stimuli
What is the garcia effect?
Conditioned taste aversion sometimes occurs when sickness was merely coincidental and not related to the substance that caused the sickness
Classical conditioning =
involuntary responses
Operant conditioning =
voluntary reponses
2 key contributors to operant conditioning
Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner
Strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response (adds something pleasant)
positive reinforcement
Strengthens a response by reducing or removing something negative
negative reinforcement
Reinforce the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited
Continuous
Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited
Partial (Intermittent)
interval =
time
ratio =
number of responses
fixed =
set
variable =
random
POSITIVE punishment
adding aversive stimulus
- Spanking, parking tickets, spraying dog with water to stop it from barking etc
NEGATIVE punishment
removing favorable stimulus
- Time out, revoking driver’s license, take phone away after failing class etc.
reinforcement is to…
increase/maintain behavior
punishment is to…
decrease behavior
operant conditioning (two words)
reinforcement and punishment
Who created observational learning?
Bandura
bobo doll experiement (who)
Albert Bandura (observational learning)
what is the frustration-aggression principle?
aggression is the often a result of frustration
Theory of Mind
empathy driven ability to infer another’s mental state
what type of learning?
- Learning in the absence of rewards
- cognitive maps - mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
- Studying rats in mazes (Tolman and Honzik)
latent learning
What is Insight Learning
Sudden awareness of solution to a problem
Problem-focused coping
Alleviate stress directly-change the stresses or the way we interact with that stressor
Emotion-focused coping
Alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor, attention to emotional need related to one’s stress reaction
External Locus of Control
Perception that chance or outside forces beyond our control determine our fate
(memory) Encoding =
getting information into our brain
Storage (memory) =
retain that information
Retrieval (memory) =
get the information back out
what is sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
What is an iconic memory?
a brief visual memory (1 sec)
what is an echoic memory?
a brief auditory memory (4 sec)
Who created the “Magic 7”?
- We can hold 7 (+/- 2) items
- 20 seconds
George Miller
Working memory
- updated understanding of short-term memory
trying to remember a phone number while a toddler is shouting for attention, or trying to remember a shopping list when you bump into an old friend. Children use working memory in the classroom
The brain’s ability to attend to two different stimuli at the same time
divided attention
Semantic Encoding
Thinking about the meaning of a word or element to better remember it
What are Implicit Memories
Retaining information unconsciously
- done through automatic processing
- encodes info such as: space (location of items), time, frequency (how many times things happen)
Explicit Memories
Memory of facts & experiences one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory)
- effortful processing- this requires attention and conscious effort
what are the two types of explicit memories?
Episodic (events) - Memories are personally experienced
Semantic (Facts) - General factual knowledge
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating information in order to memorize it
Elaborative Rehearsal
Memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered v. Maintenance Rehearsal where you repeat over and over
3 Effortful Processing Strategies
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
Mnemonics: memory aids (ex: learning cardinal directions; never eat soggy waffles)
Hierarchies: when we organize words or concepts into hierarchical groups.
Spacing Effect:
the tendency of spacing out study or practice sessions yield better long term retention than cramming
Testing Effect
the act of repeated self-testing rather than simply rereading information
Method of Loci
Memory enhancement strategy, uses visuals of familiar environments in order to enhance the recall of information
Self-reference effect
When you apply a situation to yourself- more likely to remember it
what two things in the brain are apart of the Explicit Memory System
Frontal Lobes & Hippocampus
what two things in the brain are apart of the Implicit Memory System
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
Flashbulb Memories
A vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment of event
Long-Term Potentiation
an increase in the cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Context-Dependent Memory
We retrieve a memory more easily when we learn that memory in the same context as when we formed the memory
State Dependent Memory
What we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state.
Mood congruent memory
Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
- It’s the holiday season- you’re feeling happy and relaxed. That mood by itself can evoke other memories of holidays, fun times, family get-togethers, etc…
Serial Position Effect
Our tendency to recall the last items (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
“Tip of the Tongue”
Phenomenon
Information in long-term memory that can’t be easily recalled
proactive interference
Old memories disrupt the retrieval of new memories
retroactive interference
Backward acting, new memories disrupt the retrieval and maintenance of old memories
Anterograde Amnesia
you can’t form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
you forget what happened in the past
Repression (unconsciously) - memory
A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
Drug-Induced Amnesia
Amnesia caused by drugs
Source Amnesia
the inability to recall where, when or how you learned previously acquired information
Metacognition
awareness of and ability to regulate one’s own thinking
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people.
concepts
What is a Schemas?
a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them
Convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in a different direction
Representativeness Heuristics
judging the likelihood of things based on how well they seem to represent, or match a particular prototype
Availability Heuristics
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
our tendency to continue to pursue something that we have already committed to in terms of investing money, time or effort into it, even if those costs are not recoverable
- “this game is trash, but i spent money on it, so i am going to keep playing”
- The tendency to be more confident than correct
- To overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
- Heuristics often lead us to be overconfident
Overconfidence
bias in which people seek out and recall information that supports their preconceived beliefs
Confirmation Bias
the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs
Belief Bias
when a person holds to a belief or set of beliefs even when confronted with contrary evidence
Belief Perseverance
Our tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Can be an obstacle to our problem solving abilities → just because it worked for you once doesn’t mean it will again!
mental sets
The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
fixation
Functional Fixedness
Seeing a tool as only have one function
what is framing
The way we present an issue, question, or topic sways our decisions and judgements
- 20% fat frozen yogurt
- 80% fat-free frozen yogurt
the beginning of baby’s language development where they can understand what is said to and about them
Receptive language
Productive Language
Babies ability to produce words- includes various stages (babbling, One-word stage,Two-word stage)
Cryptophasia or idioglossia
secret twin language
Who said that Learning language must be an inborn/innate as we have a built in predisposition to learn grammar rules (nativist theory)?
Noam Chomsky
Who said If they are reinforced they keep saying the word.
If they are punished, they stop saying the word.
Baby may imitate a parent.
Social Learning Theory
B.F. Skinner
Sapir-Whorf’s Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis (Linguistic relativity)
The idea that the language we use determines the way we think.
Limitations on vocabulary can create limitations on how people see the world
Charles Spearman’s General Intelligence Theory
- Believed we had ONE general Intelligence
- Used factor analysis and discovered that what we see as many different skills is actually one
who created the 7 Primary Mental Abilities
L.L Thurstone
what is Savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
who has the Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner
who created the Triarchic (Three Intelligences)
Robert Sternberg
- Analytical Intelligence
- Creative Intelligences
- Practical Intelligences
Five components of emotional intelligence at work, as developed by Daniel Goleman (list 5)
- self-awareness
- self-regulation
- motivation
- empathy
- social skills
What type of intelligence?
- Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tend to increase with age
Crystallized Intelligence
What type of intelligence?
Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, problem-solve, deal with novelty tends to decrease during late adulthood
Fluid intelligence
Who created this:
mental age: level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age
Alfred Binet
- Believed genius was inherited
- `First to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences
Francis Galton
The Flynn Effect
Performance on IQ scores has steadily increased over generations
_________ is the measurement of mental traits, abilities, and processes
Psychometrics
___________ is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
validity
_______ is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
stereotype threat
Threshold of Viability
Ability for baby to survive at premature birth
Teratogens
Viruses/bacteria
Mumps/measles/rubella(MMR), chicken pox, AIDS, syphilis, influenza
Toxoplasmosis, Zika
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy
Neurogenesis
the growth of neurons
one must learn to crawl before walk
maturation
who were the two stage theorists?
- These psychologists believe that we travel from stage to stage throughout our lifetimes
Sigmund Freud
Jean Piaget
who created the Psychosexual Stages of Development?
- We all have a libido (sexual drive)
- Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital
Sigmund Freud
If conflicts are unresolved in any one of these stages, the person will develop a __________
fixation
What are Piaget’s important contributions?
Schemas
Assimilate
Accommodation
What are schemas (Piaget)?
frameworks (concepts) in which the mind organizes and interprets information
What is assimilate?
you add new examples into an already existing schema
What is accommodation?
change your schema
What are Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development (four)?
- include ages
1) Sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years)
2) Preoperational period (2 to 7 years)
3) Concrete operational period (7 to 11 years)
4) formal operational period (11 through adulthood)
What stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?
- Experience the world through their senses. Walking, putting stuff in their mouths.
- Lack object permanence up until 8 or 9 mths.
Sensorimotor period
What stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?
- Make believe feels real (they don’t wonder how Santa visits all those houses in one night)
- Animism
- Egocentrism develops and they are unable to understand theory of mind
Preoperational
What stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?
- Children can think logically
- Conservation and reversibility develop
- Rewards and punishments are understood (but not truth and justice)
Concrete Operational
What stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?
- Abstract and systematic reasoning develops
- Ability for mature moral reasoning occurs
- They can solve for x (an unknown) and understand what that means
Formal Operational
Information-Processing theory says children do not learn in stages but rather a ________________________
gradual continuous growth
Who created the Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development?
Lev Vygotsky
Who believed children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society?
Lev Vygotsky
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Temperament
Who discovered imprinting?
- studied how infant ducks follow the first animal that they see after hatching
Konrad Lorenz
Who said that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment?
- monkey experiement
Harry Harlow
Who did the Strange Situation Test?
- social development in childhood
Secure, Insecure/ambivalent, Avoidant & Disorganized attatchment
Mary Ainsworth
What type of attachment?
- distress when mother leaves, calmed when mother returns (REUNION)
secure
What type of attachment?
- baby cries uncontrollably, can’t be comforted upon mother returning
Insecure/ambivalent
What type of attachment?
- tend to avoid parent/caregiver, show no preference to them or stranger, may be result of abuse or neglect
avoidant
What type of attachment?
- disoriented or confused interaction with parent/caregiver, may reflect inconsistent care
disorganized
Who created the parenting styles and what are they?
Diana Baumrind
Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience
Permissive: parents submit to their child’s desires
Authoritative: parents are both demanding and responsive
what is the best parenting style
authoritative
oversimplified beliefs about characteristics that all men and women are presumed to have
gender stereotypes
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females
gender roles
our sense of being male, female, both or neither
gender identity
Who created the Stages of Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson
Stage 1 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
trust vs mistrust
Stage 2 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
autonomy vs shame and doubt
Stage 3 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
initiative vs guilt
Stage 4 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
industry vs inferority
Stage 5 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
identity vs confustion
Stage 6 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
intimacy vs isolation
Stage 7 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
generativity vs self-absorbtion
Stage 8 of Psychosocial Development
- Erik Erikson
integrity vs despair
Who created the Theory of Moral Development?
Lawrence Kohlberg
What is Lawrence Kohlberg’s preconventional stage?
punishment orientation and naive reward orientation
What is Lawrence Kohlberg’s conventional level?
good boy/girl orientation and authority orientation
What is Lawrence Kohlberg’s postconventional level?
social contract orientation and individual principles and conscience orientation
Who criticized Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory because of gender bias (he only tested boys)?
Carol Gilligan
Climacteric Phase
2-3 year period where the body readjusts to post-fertile time
Who created the Death and Dying (5 Stages of Grief)
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
What are the 5 stages of grief in order?
Denial: It won’t really happen”
Anger: Why Me!!?
Bargaining: “I promise I’ll go to church/mosque/synagogue”
Depression: sadness
Acceptance: a peaceful understanding
What motivation theory?
- Motivated by our inborn automated behaviors- not external, not learned
- dog shaking after it gets wet
- sea turtle heading to the ocean after hatching
Instinct & Evolutionary Theory
What motivation theory?
- The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
- we want to stay at homeostasis
Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory
What is a morpheme
the smallest unit of language that carries meaning
Who is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy?
Aaron Beck
What types of disorders have salts of lithium been used to treat?
bipolar disorders
What are the 6 types of Anxiety Disorders?
General Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Phobia
Agoraphobia
Social Anxiety Disorder
Mutism
Tendency to attribute others’ behaviors to dispositional causes and our own to situational causes.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Which personality disorder is characterized by attention-seeking behavior and extreme emotionality?
histronic
Who proposed the law of effect?
Edward Thorndike
Self- Serving Bias
People’s tendency to attribute positive events to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors.
False Consensus Effect
Tendency for people to believe their own values and ideas are “normal” and that the majority of people share these same opinions
Just World Phenomenon
Tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
nomenon of someone “predicting” or expecting something, and this “prediction” or expectation coming true simply because the person believes it will and the person’s resulting behaviors align to fulfill the belief
what route of persuasion?
direct approach
uses evidence and logic
point to superior quality of product
use statistics to support your case
central route
what route of persuasion?
indirect approach
uses a positive association
status, good feelings, sex, self-image
peripheral route
Tendency to comply with larger request after we have complied with a smaller one.
foot in the door
Tendency to comply with smaller requests after we’ve complied with a much larger favor
door in the face
who discovered Cognitive Dissonance
Leon Festinger
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
conformity
normative social influence
To avoid rejection or gain social approval (social norms)
informational social influence
We want to believe whatever our group believes, so we accept others opinions
who did an experiment of Blind Obedience?
Stanley Milgram
whose experiment was in which people obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person
Stanley milgram
groupthink
Tendency to make bad decisions because of the illusion that the plan of action is a good one and is supported by all members of a group; there is then a lack of offered contradictory ideas to keep group feeling good
Social Facilitation
presence of others improves individual task performance.
Social inhibition
refers to the inability of people to perform complex or unfamiliar tasks in the presence of observers or competitors
Given a task in a group without individual accountability, people exert less effort
social loafing
Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint as a result of participation in a large group
Deindividuation
The tendency for people to hold even more extreme views on a topic after a group discussion of like-minded people
Group Polarization
who did the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment
Dr. Philip Zimbardo
who said “If sanity and insanity exist….“how shall we know them?”
David Rosenhan
who did the experiment of putting sane people in an insane hospital
David Rosenhan
Prejudice is a negative ___________
attitude
Discrimination is a negative __________
behavior
in-group bias
favoring one’s own group
The observation that, when bad things happen, prejudice offers an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame.
Scapegoat Theory
Vivid Cases
example: 911
Mere exposure effect
Merely seeing someone’s face and name makes them more likeable.
Reciprocal Liking
we tend to like those who like us back
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
Passionate love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Companionate love-
is the unselfish concern for the welfare of others
Altruism
our social behavior is an exchange process, which we maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Social Exchange Theory
social convention that compels people to return a favor when someone has helped them.
Reciprocity norms
A type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others
Social Desirability Bias
Optimal Arousal Theory
Optimal arousal theory holds that human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but seek optimal levels of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson Law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
our reward system’s main neurotransmitter
Dopamine
what are the five things on maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
self-actualization
esteem
love and belonging
safety needs
physiological needs
what part of the brain makes you hungry or full
Hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus
stimulation brings on hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus
stimulation suppresses hunger
What appetite hormone?
controls blood glucose
Insulin
Hunger-triggering hormone from hypothalamus
Orexin
Empty stomach hormone
Ghrelin
Protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes increase in metabolism and decrease in hunger
Leptin
Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain
Peptide YY
GULP down =
NOT hungry
glucose
leptin
peptide YY
I GO up =
im hungry
insulin
ghrelin
orexin
Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
See themselves as fat. Type of body dysmorphia.
Vast majority are women.
Anorexia Nervosa
Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food
Bulimia Nervosa
who studied the Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Alfred Kinsey
Intrinsic Motivators
motivated to perform an activity for its own sake and personal rewards
Phenomenon in which being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action.
Overjustification Effect
What emotion theory?
- Emotions arise from our awareness of our specific bodily responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
- Physiological Response -> Emotion
- I hear a sound in the woods (stimulus), I observe my heart racing (arousal) and become afraid (emotion)
James-Lange Theory
What emotion theory?
- Emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and simultaneous subjective experience.
- I hear a rustling in the woods (stimulus) My heart races (arousal) at the same time that I become afraid (emotion)- happening simultaneously, but independent of one another, not one causing the other
Cannon-Bard
What emotion theory?
that to experience emotion one must
(1) be physically aroused and
(2) cognitively label the arousal
Two-factor theory (the Schachter-Singer theory)
What emotion theory?
- Our emotional reactions are separate from our cognitive label on the situation
- Physiological reaction first→ cognition after
Zajonc-LeDoux Theory
What emotion theory?
Immediate unconscious interpretation of events that leads to labeling of emotion & physiological response
Lazarus
Who said that Facial expressions for various expressions are universal
Paul Ekman
Facial Feedback Effect hypothesis
suggests that an individual’s emotional experience is influenced by their facial expressions. I smile, so I feel happy/friendly
the process of releasing strong or repressed emotions
Catharsis
Opponent Process Theory of Emotion
When you feel one emotion, you will feel the opposite feeling when resolved
- Fear of public speaking, feeling elated after
Spillover Effect
The tendency for our emotion to affect the emotions of those around us, or ‘spill over’ into another event
who created General Adaptation Syndrome
1) alarm
2)resistance
3) exhaustion
Hans Selye
Who used the Free Association method?
Freud
Who Believed the mind was mostly hidden/
psychoanalytics FREUD
What are Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality ?
and what do they mean
ID - pleasure principle
EGO - reality principle
SUPEREGO - moral imperatives
Oedipus Complex:
boy wants mom🡪dad is competition🡪be like dad
Electra Complex
girl’s psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father
What defense mechanism?
- Banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness
- Seen thru dreams and slips of the tongue
- main one
repression
What defense mechanism enables all other defense mechanisms?
repression
What defense mechanism?
- When faced with anxiety, retreats to infantile stage
- Homesick from camp/college
regression
What defense mechanism?
- Ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into opposites
- I hate him/her because I love him/her
reaction formation
What defense mechanism?
- Disguise your own threatening impulse
- She or he doesn’t trust me = I don’t trust myself
projection
What defense mechanism?
- Self-justifying actions
- “Social drinkers”, “everyone cheats on tests”
rationalization
What defense mechanism?
- Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses towards a less threatening object
- Mad at parents..take it out on dog :( (or siblings)
displacement
What defense mechanism?
- Refusal to accept reality b/c it would produce unbearable anxiety
denial
What defense mechanism?
- Re-channel unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities
- Aggression into workout programs, expressive art of warfare…
sublimation
Personality tests designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli , presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test.
Projective tests
Type of projective test that involves describing ambiguous scenes
TAT
Who Believed the goal of personality development was to become individuated to realize the self
- personal unconscious - Repressed thoughts, memories, emotions
- collective unconscious - ideas/thoughts/images we ALL share as humans
Carl Jung
claims that the order in which a child is born shapes their development and personality
ALFRED ADLER
Birth Order Theory
humans are motivated by goals they set for themselves, rather than their past childhood experiences
ALFRED ADLER
Fictional Finalism
she suggested that men experience “womb envy” because they are unable to bear children
- criticized Freud
Karen Horney
who are the two humanistic psychologists
Carl Rogers and Maslow
who believed in unconditional positive regard
Carl Rogers
emphasized the uniqueness of the individual and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior
- trait theory
believes that personality is biologically determined at birth, and shaped by a person’s environmental experience
PERSON
Gordon Allport
Who made the 16 Personality Factors Theory
Raymond Cattell
who made the The Big 5 Model
Costa & McCrae
what are the five things on the Big 5 Model that Costa & McCrae made?
conscientious, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion
what are the three factors of Reciprocal Determinism that Bandura made?
behavior –> environment –> person –>
who created the Expectancy Theory?
- person’s decision to engage in a behavior is determined by 1) what the person expects to happen
Julian Rotter
our sense of competence/belief in ability to succeed in specific situations or on tasks
Self-Efficacy
a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
lobotomy
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
systematic desensitization
symptoms without an apparent physical cause
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Interprets normal physical sensations & symptoms of a disease
Anxiety converted into a physical symptom
Conversion Disorder
What cluster of personality disorders?
eccentric or odd behaviors
A
What cluster of personality disorders?
dramatic or impulsive behaviors
B
What cluster of personality disorders?
anxiety; fearful thinking
C
What personality disorder?
- suffer from paranoia
- unrelenting mistrust and suspicion of others, even when there is no reason to be suspicious.
Paranoid Personality Disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of detachment from social relationships
- Restricted range of emotional expression
Schizoid Personality Disorder
What personality disorder?
- Being a loner and lacking close friends outside of the immediate family
- Peculiar, eccentric or unusual thinking, beliefs or mannerisms
- Belief in special powers, such as mental telepathy or superstitions
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others
- Person may be aggressive and/or ruthless.
- Deceiving or conning others
- Aggressive sexually with no remorse.
- Psychopaths, serial killers, sociopaths
Antisocial Personality disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, marked impulsivity
borderline personality disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking
histrionic
What personality disorder?
- an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration, troubled relationships, and a lack of empathy for others
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation
Avoidant Personality Disorder
What personality disorder?
- Pattern of submissive and clinging behavior, excessive need to be taken care of
Dependent Personality disorder
