AP bio midterm review Flashcards
Metabolism
The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions
Metabolic pathway
The series of steps in which a molecule is altered. Each step is catalyzed by an enzyme.
Catabolic pathways
A type of metabolic pathway that breaks things down and releases energy.
Anabolic pathways
A metabolic pathway that consumes energy to build more complicated molecules.
Bioenergetics
How energy flows through living organisms.
First law of thermodynamics
Energy can’t be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.
Second law of thermodynamics
Every chemical reaction releases energy which increases entropy in the universe.
Endergonic reactions
Absorbs free energy.
Exergonic reactions
Releases free energy.
Energy coupling
Using an exergonic process to power an endergonic one.
ATP
Made of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups. It is used to make RNA.
Conversion of ATP to ADP + Pi
Energy is released.
Phosphorylated intermediate
A recipient molecule of a phosphate group from ATP in the process of phosphorylation.
Regeneration of ATP
It can be regenerated using energy from exergonic reactions in the cell.
Enzyme
A molecule that catalyzes a reaction.
Catalyst
A chemical agent that speeds up the rate of reaction without being consumed.
Activation energy
The amount of energy needed for the reaction to take place.
Enzymes and activation energy
Enzymes reduce the required amount of activation energy.
Active site
The only place on the enzyme where the substrate can attach and react.
Catalytic cycle of an enzyme
The substrates attach, react, and are released. Then the enzyme is free to continue this process.
Induced fit model
The tightening of the binding holding the substrates onto the enzyme, putting them in a better position for the reaction to occur faster.
Enzyme catalysis methods
Providing a template for substrates, stretching substrates to break them down faster, and providing microenvironments for quicker reactions.
Effects of temperature on enzyme activity
Enzyme activity increases with temperature to a point, after which high temperature denatures the enzyme.
Cofactors and coenzymes
Cofactors are nonprotein helpers for catalytic activity; if they are organic, they are coenzymes.
Competitive inhibition
When inhibitors mimic the shape of the substrate and compete for a space on the enzyme.
Non-competitive inhibition
Inhibitors bind to another site on the enzyme, causing it to change shape.
Allosteric regulation
Occurs when a regulator attaches to one part of the enzyme and changes the way it works.
Feedback inhibition
Occurs when a product binds to another part of the enzyme and inhibits its own production.
Cell structure and enzyme control
Each organelle contains specific enzymes arranged in the order of their metabolic pathways.
Polar molecule
A molecule with a positive end and a negative end
electronegativity
the ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound
hydrogen bonds that water can form
four hydrogen bonds
cohesion
Attraction between molecules of the same substance
adhesion
An attraction between molecules of different substances
surface tension of water
the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between molecules of water at the surface.
specific heat of water
very high
water’s moderation of temperature
high specific heat allows H2O to change less temperature when absorbs / loses heat
water’s insulation
Ice is lighter than water, so it can float and insulate the water underneath
effects of heat of vaporization on living organisms
evaporative cooling and rain
4 degrees Celsius
water is most dense
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
why water is a good solvent
polarity
hydrophobic
Having an aversion to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water.
hydrophilic
Attracted to water
acid
adds hydrogen ions
base
reduces hydrogen ions
Buffer
takes and releases hydrogen ions when a solution needs it
bonds that a carbon atom can form
four
type of bonds carbon atoms form
single or double
Carbon skeletons vary in
length, branching, double bonds, rings
hydrocarbon
Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbon polarity
non-polar
Isomer
Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
structural isomers
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
cis-trans isomers
pair of molecules are on the same or different sides of the double bond
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other
functional groups
chemical groups attached to carbon skeletons that give compounds their functionality
CO
carbonyl group
-OH
hydroxyl group
-COOH
carboxyl group
carboxyl group behaves like
acid
hydroxyl group polarity
polar
-NH2
amino group
amino group behaves like
base
-SH
sulfhydryl group
sulfhydral group
thiol
-OPO3 2-
phosphate group
phosphate group and water
hydrophilic
CH3
methyl group
Methyl group function
non-polar molecule that inactivates genes
macromolecule
A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules
Polymer
large compound formed from combinations of many monomers
monomer
small chemical unit that makes up a polymer
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction where two molecules bond by removing a water molecule.
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
monosaccharides
simple sugars
Monosaccharide examples
glucose, fructose
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.
disaccharide examples
sucrose, lactose
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides
storage polysaccharides
plants - starch, animals - glycogen
cellulose
structural polysaccharide component of plant cell walls.
Chitin
structural polysaccharide that forms exoskeleton
Carbohydrates
functional groups in carbohydrates
hydroxyl and carbonyl
carbon in abbreviated ring structure
carbon at each unlabeled corner
bond to form disaccharide
glycosidic linkage (covalent)
glycosidic linkage in cellulose
beta 1-4
Lipids and water
hydrophobic
Components of fat
glycerol and 3 fatty acids
functional groups of a fat
carboxyl and hydroxyl
glycerol molecules have ___ hydroxyls
three
bonds that connect fats
ester linkages
saturated fatty acid
a long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized
unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
hydrogenated fats
add hydrogen to liquid unsaturated fats to make them solid saturated fats
the kinks in an unsaturated fatty acid are caused by ___
cis double bonds
phospholipid
a lipid that contains a phosphate group instead of a third hydrocarbon
phospholipids form
cell membranes
phospholipid tails
nonpolar, hydrophobic
phospholipid heads
polar, hydrophilic
steroids
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
cholesterol uses
Steroid hormone synthesis
Cholesterol dangers
processed in liver, can be bad for blood
disulfide bridges
covalent bonds that may further reinforce the shape of a protein
denaturation
loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat, pH, or other factor
primary protein structure
sequence of a chain of amino acids
secondary protein structure
occurs when hydrogen bonds link the sequence of amino acids.
Helices or pleated sheets
The shape of a secondary structure
tertiary protein structure
3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions
quaternary protein structure
protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
peptide bond
covalent bond formed between a carboxyl and amino group in proteins
Dipeptide
Two amino acids bonded together
polypeptide
long chain of amino acids that makes proteins
r group
a functional group that defines a particular amino acid and gives it special properties.
number of r groups
20
groups that make up amino acids
carboxyl, amino, hydrogen, r group, and central carbon
Components of nucleic acids
a nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
DNA number of strands
two
RNA number of strands
one
DNA arrangement
antiparallel
RNA arrangement
different for different purposes
DNA bases
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
RNA bases
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
sugar-phosphate backbone
The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached
Domains with prokaryotic cells
Bacteria and Archaea
location of DNA in prokaryotic cells
nucleoid floating in cytoplasm
location of DNA in eukaryotic cells
nucleus
endosymbiont
a cell that lives within a host cell
cell wall function
protection, structural support
plasma membrane structure
phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
plasma membrane function
selective permeability- maintains intracellular environment
bacterial chromosome
The DNA of a prokaryotic cell which is located in the nucleoid
Nucleoid
A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated.
Cytoplasm
the region inside the cell except for the nucleus
Why cells are small
A cell’s surface area to volume ratio limits the size of the cells because they need nutrients which come from the outside
surface area to volume in cells
the surface area to the volume ratio gets smaller as the cell gets larger
Microvilli
projections that increase the cell’s surface area
Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells have nucleus while prokaryotic cells don’t have nucleus.
nuclear envelope
double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
nuclear lamina
A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope.
function of the nuclear lamina
It helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
Chromatin
Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell
chromatin forming chromosomes
form loops and coils to condense
Nucleolus
Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes and RNA
Ribosomes
Makes proteins
free ribosome location
cytosol
cytosol
Fluid portion of cytoplasm
bound ribosome location
attached to the ER
Free ribosome product
enzymes that catalyze sugar breakdown
bound ribosome product
proteins that go into membranes
Rough ER structure
Continuous with the nuclear envelope, separates the cisternal space inside from the cytosol on the outside.
function of Rough ER
Produces proteins from ribosomes, assists in protein folding, transports vesicles, and synthesizes membrane proteins and phospholipids.
Rough ER in protein production
It produces proteins from ribosomes and helps in their folding within the ER lumen.
Smooth ER structure
Membranous system of sacs and tubules; free of ribosomes
Smooth ER function
ER synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbs, detoxifies poisons, stores calcium ions
Golgi apparatus structure
a stack of flattened membranes and associated vesicles close to the nucleus
Golgi apparatus function
modifies and packages proteins
Lysosomes
An organelle containing digestive enzymes
food vacuole
formed when a unicellular organism engulfs food particles or a white blood cell engulfs invaders. This is called phagocytosis
contractile vacuole
pumps excess water out of the cells
central vacuole
located in mature plant cells, contains cell sap
Cell Sap (Central Vacuole)
mix of inorganic ions like potassium and chloride
Flow of materials in cell export
ER to Golgi to Vesicle to Cell membrane
digestive enzymes in lysosomes
have special shapes to prevent the membrane from being digested.
Phagocytosis
process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell
Choloroplasts
where photosynthesis occurs. This is the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy.
Cytoskeleton
a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell.
two roles of the cytoskeleton
support and motility
structure of cell wall
The cell wall consists of the primary cell walls, the middle lamella, and secondary cell walls
endosymbiont theory
explains that eukaryotic cells may have evolved from prokaryotic cells
evidence for endosymbiont theory
double membrane, ribosomes, circular DNA, capable of functioning on their own
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
amphipathic
having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region
fluid mosaic model
The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
temperature’s effect on membrane fluidity
increase temp= increase fluidity
unsaturated hydrocarbon chains’ effect on fluidity
more = longer to solidify
Cholesterol and fluidity
Acts as a fluidity buffer. Makes it less fluid at higher temps by restraining movement. However, makes in more fluid at lower temperatures becaus it creates space.
integral proteins
penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer
peripheral proteins
bound to the surface of the membrane
transport proteins
allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane
enzymatic activity
A protein built into the membrane with active site exposed to carry out important steps
signal transduction protein
A membrane protein with a shape that fits a chemical messenger like a hormone used to send messages
Cell-cell recognition proteins
Identification between cells.
intercellular joining proteins
membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions
protein attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM
microfilaments non covalently bound to membrane proteins for stabilization
Membrane carbohydrates functions
cell recognition, anchor cells together
channel proteins
provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane
carrier proteins
bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane
Aquaporins
water channel proteins
CO2 diffusion
easily pass through without help
Glucose diffusion
hard to get through without a carrier protein because it’s polar
hydrogen ion transport through membrane
can’t pass through by itself
Oxygen diffusion across bilayer
direction of concentration gradient
H2O diffusion across cell membrane
hard to get through by itself, usually goes through aquaporins
golgi apparatus
packages and processes
Vesicles
membrane sacs for transport in cell
Mitochondria
produces ATP via cellular respiration with requirement of oxygen
flagella/cilia
motion
Hypertonic
A solution with a higher concentration of solute than the cell
Hypotonic
A solution with a lower concentration of solute than the cell
Isotonic
Having the same solute concentration as the cell
turgid
The healthy state of plant cells where the cell is very firm and the inside of the cell is pushing against the outside. The outside of the cell is hypotonic.
Flaccid
Plant cell in an isotonic solution, the plant will wilt because there’s not enough pressure
Plasmolysis
Plant cell in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall
Facilitated diffusion
passive transport aided by proteins
Active transport
Pumping a solute against its concentration gradient with the requirement of energy from the cell. This energy is usually ATP
sodium-potassium pump
a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell
membrane potential
The voltage across a cell’s plasma membrane.
positive membrane potential
Extracellular side
Endocytosis
process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
receptor-mediated endocytosis
when receptors on the outside of the cell membrane bind to specific substances outside the cell and take them in
Exocytosis
Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material by attaching a vesicle to the cell membrane
water potential
the potential energy of a volume of water, expressed as a pressure
Water potential’s relationship to solute concentration
inversely proportional
How water travels
from low to high potential
relationship between water potential and pressure
directly proportional
solute potential equation
Ψs = -iCRT
R in solute potential equation
Pressure constant (0.0831 liter bars/mole K)
Relationship between solute potential and solute concentration
Higher solute concentration = lower solute potential
relationship between solute potential and water potential
directly proportional
cell size and diffusion
smaller cell - higher diffusion rate
redox reaction
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
oxidized reactant in cellular respiration
glucose
reduced reactant in cellular respiration
Oxygen
purpose of cellular respiration
produce ATP
NAD+/NADH
an organic molecule that serves as an electron carrier by being oxidized (losing electrons) to NAD+ and reduced (gaining electrons) to NADH
Role of NAD+ in cellular respiration
the NAD+ picks up electrons from glucose and turns to NADH to transport them
glycolysis location
cytoplasm
link reaction location
mitochondrial matrix
Krebs cycle location
mitochondrial matrix
Electron transport chain location
inner mitochondrial membrane
oxidative phosphorylation
powered by the redox reactions of the electron transport chain
substrate-level phosphorylation
The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate
inputs of glycolysis
Glucose, e-, ADP, Pi, H+, NAD+, ATP 2
outputs of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, ATP 4, NADH, H+, H2O
pyruvate oxidation
Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA and CO2 that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in the presence of O2.
Krebs cycle inputs
2 Acetyl CoA, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD, 2 ADP
Krebs cycle outputs
4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP
Krebs cycle purpose
make electron carriers NADH and FADH2 to move on to ETC
amount of ATP produced per glucose during cellular respiration
30 - 32
Oxidation and Reduction in ETC
-NADH is oxidized (loses e-)
-oxygen is reduced (gains e-)
Use of energy from ETC
creation of ATP
reason for double membrane in mitochondria
Hydrogen ions stored between membranes
How ATP is generated in the ETC
The hydrogen ions that went into the membrane from the electron transport chain are forced to leave through an enzyme called ATP synthase which creates ATP from ADP and phosphate with the energy from the hydrogen ions leaving.
Why cellular respiration is completed in steps
To maximize the usage of the energy being produced
Step of cellular respiration where glucose is completely oxidized
2 turns of the Krebs cycle
Steps of cellular respiration where oxygen is needed
Pyruvate oxidation and the Krebs cycle require oxygen to be present. Oxidative phosphorylation (ETC) requires oxygen as an input
final electron acceptor of ETC
oxygen which then creates water
Protein pumps in ETC
create the H+ gradient in ETC
Oxygen’s purpose in ETC
Very electronegative, pulls in the electrons at the end.
Enzyme
A protein that catalyzes chemical reactions.
Catalyst
A substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed.
Substrate
The reactants that enzymes act upon.
Active Site
Region on enzyme where substrate binds.
Induced Fit Model
Enzyme changes shape to bind substrate better.
Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor mimics substrate, blocking active site.
Noncompetitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds elsewhere, changing enzyme shape.
Cofactors
Nonprotein helpers for enzyme activity.
Coenzymes
Organic cofactors that assist enzymes.
Energy Coupling
Using exergonic reactions to drive endergonic ones.
ATP
Energy carrier with three phosphate groups.
ADP
Adenosine diphosphate, lower energy form than ATP.
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Direct transfer of phosphate to ADP from substrate.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
ATP production via electron transport chain reactions.
Glycolysis
Process breaking down glucose to pyruvate.
Krebs Cycle
Series of reactions producing electron carriers and CO2
Electron Carriers
Molecules that transport electrons in cellular respiration.
Fermentation
Anaerobic process converting sugars to acids or alcohol.
Photosynthesis
Process converting light energy into chemical energy.
Light Reactions
Convert solar energy into ATP and NADPH.
Calvin Cycle
Uses ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose.
Carbon Fixation
Attachment of CO2 to RuBP in Calvin Cycle.
Rubisco
Enzyme catalyzing carbon fixation in photosynthesis. Most abundant enzyme on earth
G3P
Intermediate product in the Calvin Cycle. one is released at the end while 5 are kept in the cycle
Accessory Pigments
Molecules that capture additional light energy.
Chloroplast
Organelle where photosynthesis occurs.
Thylakoids
Membrane structures in chloroplasts for light reactions.
Stroma
Fluid in chloroplasts where Calvin Cycle occurs.
Absorption Spectrum
Wavelengths of light absorbed by chlorophyll.
pH in Thylakoid Space
Lowest due to high hydrogen ion concentration.
pH in Stroma
Highest due to lower hydrogen ion concentration.
ATP synthase
Enzyme facilitating ATP production via hydrogen ions.
Anthocyanins
Pigments responsible for red, purple, and blue colors in plants.
Xanthophylls
Yellow pigments that help in light absorption.
Chlorophyll breakdown
Process revealing accessory pigments during autumn.
Light reaction inputs and outputs
inputs - 2 H2O, 3 ADP, 3Pi, 2 NADP+; outputs - O2, 2 NADPH, 3 ATP
Calvin cycle inputs and outputs
inputs - 3 CO2, 9 ATP, 6 NADPH; outputs - 9 ADP, 6 NADP+, 6 H2O, 9 Pi
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Oxidized Molecule in photosynthesis
Water (H2O) loses electrons during photosynthesis.
Reduced Molecule in photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide (CO2) gains electrons during photosynthesis.
Photosystem I (PSI)
Complex where light energy re-excites electrons for further transfer.
NADP+ in photosynthesis
Final electron acceptor in photosynthesis, forming NADPH.
PGA
3-carbon molecule formed during carbon fixation phase.
Aerobic Respiration
Oxygen-utilizing process generating maximum ATP.
Anaerobic Respiration
Oxygen-free process using metals as electron acceptors.
Oxidation and reduction in Glycolysis
glucose is oxidized and ADP is reduced
Exergonic Reactions
Reactions that release energy, regenerating ATP.
Metabolism
Totality of an organism’s chemical reactions.
Catabolism
Energy-releasing reactions that break down molecules.
Anabolism
Energy-requiring reactions that synthesize molecules.
cytoplasmic junctions
signaling through direct contact between cytoplasms
direct contact signaling
touching cell surface molecules
Secretion of messenger molecules
signal cell releases molecules of a local regulator which are recognized by receptors on the target cell
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
endocrine signaling
Hormones travel through the bloodstream to reach their target cells
transduction
how a signal moves from a releasing cell to a receptor cell
steps in a transduction pathway
signal reception, transduction, cellular response
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one.
G-protein coupled receptors
A special class of membrane receptors with an associated GTP binding protein; activation of a G protein-coupled receptor involves dissociation and GTP hydrolysis
ligand-gated ion channel
open and close when a receptor changes shape to let ions in
hormone transduction (transcription of genes)
Hormones go through the plasma membrane, bind to a receptor protein, enter the nucleus, and bind to specific genes
Intermediate steps importance in a transduction pathway
A signal caused by few signaling molecules can be greatly amplified when each molecule transmits the signals to numerous others.
protein kinases
transfer phosphates from ATP to protein, a process called phosphorylation
phosphorylation cascade
A series of different molecules in a pathway are phosphorylated in turn, each molecule adding a phosphate group to the next one in line
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
second messengers
Small, non-protein, water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
cAMP as a second messenger
cAMP is made from ATP by adenylyl cyclase and then is turned to AMP.
signal amplification
Each activated molecule can activate several other molecules, creating an exponential response
endocrine glands
Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream
exocrine glands
Glands that secrete substances outward through a duct
negative feedback
a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus
positive feedback
Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output.
simple endocrine pathway
endocrine cells respond directly to an internal or environmental stimulus by secreting a particular hormone
neuroendocrine system
endocrine glands that are controlled by and interact with the nervous system
lipid soluble hormones
-steroid and thyroid hormones
-can enter cell
lipid insoluble hormones
large or hydrophilic and do not cross the plasma membrane but instead bind to a receptor on the cell’s plasma membrane
Reasons for cell division
reproduction, development, renewal, and repair
Genome
a cell’s genetic information
Chromosomes
the structures that contain DNA
Chromatin
the entire complex of DNA
Somatic cell
usual body cell with 46 chromosomes
gametes
reproductive cells with 23 chromosomes
sister chromatids
the two chromatids that make up the chromosome
centromere
the area where the sister chromatids are attached most closely
mitosis
division of genetic material
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm
Phases of the cell cycle
G1, S, G2, M
mitotic spindle
microtubules and associated proteins that begin to form during prophase
function of mitotic spindle
pulls chromatids to different sides of the cell
aster
short microtubules that extend from the centrosomes
kinetochore
section of DNA at the centromere that attaches to microtubules
mitotic spindle material
material from other microtubules of the cytoskeleton
Prophase
Microtubules form and chromosomes condense. The two centrosomes move to either side of the cell with the lengthening microtubules
prometaphase
The nuclear envelope breaks releasing the chromosomes and some microtubules attach to the kinetochores
metaphase
chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
anaphase
microtubules begin to shorten pulling the chromatids away from each other
telophase
nuclear envelope reforms on both sides
Cytokinesis
cytoplasm divides
cytokinesis in plant cells
divide from inside out using a cell plate in middle of cell
cytokinesis in animal cells
cleavage furrow formed
binary fission
prokaryotic cells get bigger and bigger and divide.
Meiosis vs. Mitosis
meiosis has 2 cell divisions, mitosis only one
Apoptosis
programmed cell death
Nondisjunction
The failure of sister chromatids to separate during and after meiosis.
independent assortment
Independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
high water potential to low water potential
the direction at which water flows
