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Psychology Unit 3/4 > Aos 3.2 Learning and memory > Flashcards

Aos 3.2 Learning and memory Flashcards

1
Q

Acquisition

A

the process of taking on a new behaviour, demonstrated by a consistent increase in responsiveness, as a result of learning

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2
Q

Acronym

A

a method of chunking info for retention by creating a pronounceable word using the 1st letter of each word in a title or procedure

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3
Q

Acrostic

A

a mnemonic device involving the creation of a memorable phrase
the 1st letter of each word in the phrase matches the 1st letter of a term in a sequence of terms to be remembered
acts as a retrieval cue for each of the required concepts

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4
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

A progressive & fatal neurodegenerative brain disease where amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles disrupt neural functions
cause cell death and atrophy of the brain.
Early hippocampal damage disrupts consolidation of explicit memory first
then loss of episodic and semantic memories

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5
Q

Amyloid plaques

A

parts of the protein beta-amyloid that build up into insoluble plaques that block communication b/w neurons

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6
Q

Amygdala

A

an almond-shaped structure
involved encoding the emotional part of classically conditioned and explicit memories

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7
Q

Aphantasia

A

a condition in which people suffer reduced or absent voluntary mental imagery

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8
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

A

a multi-component model for describing memory
3 distinguishable stages of memory:
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
where info passes as it’s processed

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9
Q

Attention

A

actively focusing on particular information while simultaneously ignoring other information

in memory formation, this process determines which info will be processed further within short-term memory.
in observational learning, learner must watch a model closely to remember their behaviour to replicate it later

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10
Q

Basal ganglia

A

A group of brain structures located at the base of the forebrain and in the midbrain
play important roles in controlling voluntary movement
involve encoding & storing implicit memories esp habit formation, procedural for movement, reward processing

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11
Q

Cerebellum

A

structure at the rear base of the brain
involve n the formation and storage of procedural memories and implicit memories esp unconscious habits, simple reflexes, procedural for precise movement

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12
Q

Cerebral cortex/Neocortex

A

thin layer of tissue that constitutes the wrinkled outer layer of the cerebrum.
stores explicit memories
1st hippocampus converts into usable form, then stored by neocortex
memories stored in different lobes depending on type of memory

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13
Q

Chunking

A

a method of increasing the capacity of short-term memory by grouping or combining small bits of separate info into larger units.

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14
Q

Classical conditioning

A

type of learning where a stimulus that naturally evokes a specific response is paired with a neutral stimulus that doesn’t usually produce this response.
an association occurs between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus during this acquisition stage
after conditioning, this stimulus alone will elicit the response that it formerly didn’t

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15
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

the involuntary, reflexive response that is caused by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place

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16
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

the stimulus which has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus after a number of paired associations
Originally this stimulus would not have evoked the unconditioned response

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17
Q

Consequence

A

in the 3-phase model of operant conditioning, the environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether the response will occur and/or continue

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18
Q

Consolidation theory

A

theory that proposes that for new information to be transferred effectively from short-term to long-term memory, there needs to be a period where these memories can fortify or stabilise without being disrupted.
during this time, physical changes occur at the neuronal level as the brain organises and restructures info to enable permanent storage of the new info

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19
Q

Contiguity

A

during conditioning, the association of two seemingly unrelated events when they occur close together in time and space

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20
Q

Declarative memory

A

the section of long-term memory that stores info that can be consciously brought to mind and verbally communicated to others, including knowledge of specific facts (semantic memory) or events (episodic memory)

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21
Q

Digit-span test

A

A test of the ability to recall a series of random digits used for measuring the storage capacity of short-term memory

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22
Q

Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)

A

the sensory memory which retains auditory info for about 3-4 seconds so that we can process sounds in their original sensory form and interpret their meeting

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23
Q

Encoding

A

the conversion of info to be remembered into a useable form that the brains can store and represent in memory

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24
Q

Episodic memory

A

form of declarative long-term memory which contains autobiographical info about personal events and experiences in one’s life and the contexts in which they occurred

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25
Q

Free recall

A

a method of accessing the memory of information without the provision of any cues. item to be remembered mat be reproduced in any order

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26
Q

Hippocampus

A

A seahorse-shaped structure of the cerebral hemispheres in the basal medial part of the temporal lobe
involves encoding explicit memories
damage = unable to form new explicit memories

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27
Q

Iconic memory (visual sensory memory)

A

A type of sensory memory for visual info that retains images in their original sensory form for about 0.3 seconds before they start to rapidly fade away.
enables us to clearly distinguish environmental stimuli rather than images overlapping or blurring together, allowing us to perceive smooth motion rather than discrete, disjointed images

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28
Q

Implicit memory

A

long-term memories that can be retrieved without conscious or intentional effort, usually expressed through behaviour and performance of a task.
Most procedural and non-declarative memories are implicitly

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29
Q

Learning

A

a relatively permanent change in behaviour that may be attributed to experience

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30
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

The mental recitation or repetition of information, so that it can be retained in short-term (or working) memory for longer than the usual maximum duration of approx 20 seconds

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31
Q

Medial temporal lobes

A

the inner part of the temporal lobes towards the middle of the brain and includes the hippocampus, which plays a key role in the consolidation of conscious, declarative memories, and the amygdala, which is important for emotion-related, implicit memory

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32
Q

Memory

A

an active, information processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information acquired through learning

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33
Q

Method of loci

A

a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are associated with specific locations on a familiar route or within a building, landscape or even the night sky

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34
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

A collective name for strategies or techniques used to enhance our improve one’s memory, usually by adding information to the items to be remembered in order to make them more meaningful

35
Q

Modelling

A

an alternative term for observational learning, highlighting that the observer learns a new behaviour or modifies an existing one as a result of watching another person (the model) and copying their actions

36
Q

Motivation

A

in observational learning, the cognitive processes that influence whether the learner decides to reproduce an observed behaviour based on their understanding of the observed consequences

37
Q

Multimodal

A

a process that combines several different elements or approaches, such as multiple senses, kinaesthetic movement, art and so on

38
Q

Negative punishment

A

aka: response cost occurs when the likelihood of a response decreases as it is the followed the removal of a desriable event or commodity

39
Q

Negative reinforcment

A

occurs when the likelihood of a respomnse recurring increases increases as it is followd by an end to discomfort, or by the removal of an unpleasant event

40
Q

Negative reinforcer

A

any unpleasant stimulus that, when removed or avoided, increases the likelihood of a response recurring

41
Q

Neurodegenerative disease

A

a disorder characterised by a progressive deterioration of brain tissue leading to a subsequent decline in brain activity and function

42
Q

Neurofibrillary tangles

A

build-up of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangle within neurons, which then block transportation of essential substances & eventually kill the neuron

43
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A chemical produced within each neuron which is released into the synaptic cleft to enable communication between neurons. These chemicals attach to receptor sites on the soma or dendrites of the next neuron, thereby altering the electrical activity in the other neurons.
Acetylcholine (Ach) and Glutamate (Glu) are neurotransmitters associated with memory and learning.

44
Q

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A

an object or event that does not normally elicit a reflective, unconditioned response

45
Q

Non- declarative memory

A

often difficult to articulate
demonstrated through changes in behaviour and adaptive responses as a result of repetition or practice, without conscious recollection of the knowledge that underlies the performance
can operate independently of the hippocampus

46
Q

Observational learning

A

aka modelling
a form of social learning
learner attends to the behaviours of another person
encodes the behaviours in memory and is motivated to rehearse and/or reproduce the behaviours based on their interpretation of the reinforcing consequences of the behaviours

47
Q

Operant conditioning

A

a type of learning where consequences that follow a response determine whether the response is likely to be repeated.
a response that has a desirable consequence be repeated
a response that has an undesirable consequence not be repeated

48
Q

Positive punishment

A

occurs when likelihood of a response recurring decreases because it’s followed by an aversive or unpleasant consequence

49
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

occurs when the likelihood of a response recurring increases as it is followed by a desirable event or reward

50
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

a stimulus which normally leads to the satisfaction of an innate, biological need (e.g food, oxygen, sleep)

51
Q

Procedural memory

A

the implicit part of long-term memory that store though processes and skills about how to perform a task which enables an individual to carry out a course of action (e.g. riding bike)

52
Q

Punishment

A

any aversive or unpleasant consequence for an individual that weakens or decreases the probability of a response recurring

53
Q

Reflex

A

An innate, automatic reaction, involving a simple, rapid response to a specific stimulus, which does not depend on conscious thought or processing by the brain.

54
Q

Rehearsal

A

process for actively renewing information in short-term memory in order to retain it for a longer period of time

55
Q

Reinforcement

A

any object or event administered after a response which strengthens and increases the likelihood of that response recurring over time

56
Q

Reinforcer

A

often referred to as a rewards, any event or consequence that strengthens the response it follows and increase the likelihood of that response occurring again

57
Q

Reproduction

A

in observational learning, the process whereby the learner attempts to reproduce, or intimate, the model’s behaviour

58
Q

Response (R)

A

a behavioural reaction made by an organism that is triggered by a particular stimulus

59
Q

Retention

A

Holding onto information within our memory over time; another term for storage or information

60
Q

Retrieval

A

the process of locating and recovering stored material, or the accessing of information, so that we are aware of it

61
Q

Retrieval cues

A

internally or externally generated stimuli that assist the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory

62
Q

Semantic memory

A

form of declarative (explicit) long-term memory which stores specialised factual information about the world, including general knowledge and the meaning of words

63
Q

Semantic processing

A

the deepest level of processing information by creating meaningful associations to understand the items to be remembered

64
Q

Sensory memory

A

aka sensory register
stage of memory that has a large capacity for unprocessed info
but is only able to momentarily preserve extremely accurate image (‘traces’) of sensory info, just long enough for relevant details to be attended to and transferred to short-term memory.
two types of sensory memory that have been most extensively explored are iconic (visual) memory and echoic (auditory) memory

65
Q

Short-term memory (STM)

A

a memory system with limited storage capacity of seven plus or minus two items and duration of about 18-20 seconds
where currently used info is retained
allows the manipulation of info contained in sensory or long-term memory

66
Q

Situated learning

A

an approach to learning that occurs within authentic settings and situations where key knowledge is integrated within activity, context and culture, rather than via a teacher presenting abstract concepts out of context in a classroom setting

67
Q

Social learning theory

A

an approach to describing and explaining learning that emphasises observational learning (modelling), vicarious conditioning processes, cognitive processes (e.g. attention) and the ‘social context’ in which they occur

68
Q

Songlines

A

the sung narratives encoded in physical routes across Country and in constellations in the night sky that convey Ancestral knowledge of Country; also known as song-spirals or Dreaming tracks

69
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

the sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has occurred

70
Q

Stimulus (S)

A

any internal or external event which triggers or elicits a response from an organism

71
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

the ability to perceive the difference between two or more stimuli, even if they are similar in nature

72
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

the likelihood that stimuli which are similar in nature will elicit a comparable, but not necessarily identical response

73
Q

Storage

A

the process of retaining and maintaining information in memory over a period of time

74
Q

Storage capacity

A

how much information (number of items) can be stored within memory.
the amount of data that can be held varies between the different levels of memory

75
Q

Storage duration

A

how long information can be stored within memory.
The amount of time that data can be held varies between the different levels of memory

76
Q

Three-phase model of operant conditioning

A

an approach to describing and explaining operant conditioning in terms of 3 steps:
(1) the discriminative stimulus (SD) that occurs before a particular response
(2) the behavioural response (R) that occurs due to the discriminative stimulus
(3) the consequence (C) associated with the response.

77
Q

Token economies

A

an application of the three-phase model of operant conditioning where the learner receives tokens as reinforcers for desired behaviour that can then be exchanged later for actual rewards (e.g flybuys)

78
Q

Unconditioned response (UCS)

A

a behaviour, usually reflexive or involuntary, which automatically occurs straight after the presentation of the UCS

79
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

a stimulus which always elicits a specific, naturally occurring automatic response

80
Q

Vicarious classical conditioning

A

when an individual learns to react to a specific stimulus because of their observations of another individual’s reaction to that stimulus

81
Q

Vicarious operant conditioning

A

when an individual learns by observing the consequences of another individual’s behaviour. as a result, they will either copy this behaviour’ modify their own behaviour, or refrain from the behaviour

82
Q

vicarious punishment

A

occurs when the likelihood of an observer a specific behaviour decreases after observing another being punished for such a behaviour

83
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a specific behaviour increases after observing another being reinforced for such a behaviour

84
Q

Working memory

A

a function of short-term memory in which small amounts of information of which we are consciously aware can be actively processed, such as mental arithmetic, dialling a telephone number and remembering a brief list of items

Psychology Unit 3/4 (6 decks)

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