AOS 1 Flashcards
nervous system, stress, learning
Central Nervous System
The major division of the n.s comprising of the brain and spinal cord which receives neural messages to the peripheral n.s
Spinal Cord
SAME
S - sensory
A - afferent
M - motor
E - efferent
Peripheral Nervous System
Is the major division of the ns comprising every neuron in the body outside the CNS
Somatic ns
Division of the PNS that transmits neural messages to voluntary motor movement
Comprises of:
* Sensory neural pathways - sensory neurons
* Motor neural pathways - motor neurons
Pathway
1. Sensory neural messages travel from sensory receptors to cns via afferent neural pathways in the somatic ns
2. Motor messages travel from CNS to skeletal muscles that carry out voluntary motor movement via efferent neural pathways
Autonomic ns
Division of PNS that regulates visceral muscles, organs, and glands and transmits neural messages to the CNS about their activity
- unconscious response
Sympathetic ns
activates visceral muscles, organs, and glands preparing for the body to respond to a threat or stressor.
- energizes the body
fight flight freeze response
- increased heart rate
- dilated pupils
- inhibits digestion
- stimulates glucose
- contracts bladder
Parasympathetic ns
maintains the optimal and balanced functioning of visceral muscles, organs and glands
Returning the body to optimal or balanced functioning after heightened body arousal due to sympathetic response
- Contracts pupils
- Slows heat rate
- Stimulates digestion
- Stimulates gallbladder
- Relaxes bladder
enteric ns
The network of nerves in the gut and is a subdivision of the Autonomic ns
Conscious response
deliberate and voluntary actions that is initiated by the brain and is performed intentionally by the body
- CNS & somatic ns
process
1. Sensory stimuli is contacts w sensory receptors
2. The sensory neural messages are transmitted via afferent pathways in somatic ns and then to the spinal cord to the brain
3. The brain processes this sensory info - initiating a conscious motor response
4. This motor neural messages is transmitted via efferent pathways in the spinal cod and then through the somatic ns to skeletal muscles
These skeletal muscles carry out conscious motor response
Unconscious response
An automatic and involuntary action that is performed by the body independently of the brains
- Physiological response o the autonomic ns
- Spinal reflex
Physiological response of the autonomic ns
Relates to the role of the autonomic ns through the sympathetic and parasympathetic responses.
sympathetic
- high HR
- High breath rate etc.
Parasympathetic
- pupils constrict
- digestion occures normally etc.
Spinal reflex
An unconscious response to sensory stimuli that is initiated by the interneurons in the spinal cord independently of the brain
1. A dangerous of harmful stimuli is detected by sensory receptors that transmit the sensory message via sensory neurons in the somatic ns to the spinal cord
2. Interneurons in the spinal cord immediately relays this sensory neural signal from a sensory neuron to a motor neuron as a motor neuron signal, initiating an automatic and unconscious motor response
3. The motor message is transmitted via motor neurons in the somatic ns to skeletal muscles, which carry to this unconscious motor response to the harmful stimuli
The sensory message continue to travel via afferent tracts in the spinal cord to the brain. Then the brain independently registers the sensation that triggered the spinal reflex
Communication within Neurons
- Info is received by receptor sites on the
dendrites- This may trigger an action potential
- This electrical message travels along the axon
Reaching the axon terminal
Neurochemical Transmission across the synapse - lock key method
- Each type of nc has a chemically distinct shape (key)
- The NC will search for a receptor site that has a complementary shape (lock
- Once the NC finds the matching receptor it then binds to it
This then unlocks postsynaptic neuron, having either an inhibitory or excitatory effect
Neurotransmitters
Chemical molecule that has an effect on 1 or 2 postsynaptic neurons.
These inhibitory/excitatory neurotransmitters have diff. influences of the postsynaptic neurons firing of an action potential (electrical impulse that travels downs the axons of the neuron)
Excitatory effects - glutamate neurotransmitter
increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing and action potential
Glutamate
- Important role in learning and memory
- Form and strengthen synaptic connections b/w neurons that are repeatedly coactivated during learning
Enables synaptic plasticity
Inhibitory Effect - GABA neurotransmitter
When the neurotransmitter decreases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential
* Suppress neural transmission
GABA
* Reduces anxiety
* Preventing seizures
* Regulates postsynaptic activation by preventing
the overexcitation of neurons
Neuromodulators
A chemical molecule that has an effect on multiple postsynaptic neurons
Released in multiple neural synapses therefore affect multiple postsynaptic neurons
Dopamine - Neuromodulator
Responsible for:
* Voluntary movement
* Pleasure
* Reward based learning
Motivation due to rewarding behaviour releasing dopamine therefore more likely to be repeated
Addiction - often provide intense dopamine release which motivates them to repeat behaviour
-Effect-
Has either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the postsynaptic neuron
Depends on the type of receptor present
Serotonin - Neuromodulator
A neuromodulator primarily responsible for the regulation of mood and sleep
Effect
* Inhibitory effect on postsynaptic neuron
Role in functioning
* Mood regulation
Appropriate serotonin levels enable stable moods
- improving wellbeing
Low levels = mental health disorders like
depression
* Regulating sleep-wake cycle
Influences quality and quantity
* Appetite
* Digestion
* Arousal
Synaptic Plasticity
The ability of synaptic connections to change overtime in response to activity
* Sprouting - dendrites or axons develop new extensions
- Growth of dendritic spines
- Growth of filigree appendages
- Synaptogenesis (new synapses)
* Rerouting - create alternative synaptic connection with undamaged neuron
- Pruning - elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated
Long-term Potentiation - LTP
Long-lasting and experience dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated
Structural changes include
* Increased no. of receptor sites on dendrites of
the postsynaptic neuron
* Bushier dendrites on the postsynaptic neuron -
sprouting
* Increased no. of synaptic connections b/w
neurons - sprouting
Learning and memory influences
* When neurotransmitters are repeatedly released into the synaptic gap and received by the receptor sites this causes long-term potentiation.
Long-term Depression
The long-lasting and experience dependent weakening of synaptic connections b/w neurons that are not regularly coactivated
Structural changes include
* Decreased number of receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron
* Decreased no. of dendrites on the postsynaptic neuron due to pruning
* Decreased number of synaptic connections b/w neurons due to pruning
In terms of memory and learning
When memories or information learnt are not repeatedly coactivated then long-term depression will weaken the synaptic connections through the release of appropriate neurotransmitters
Communication b/w neurons
- The neural impulse reaches the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron
- This causes the vesicles to release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap
- The neurotransmitters then binds to the complementary receptor site on the dendrites of the post synaptic neuron
- The neurotransmitter then makes
- The postsynaptic neuron more/less likely to fire
Stress
Psychological and physiological experience that occurs when and individual encounters something of significance that demands their attentions and/or efforts to cope
Acute Stress
Form of stress characterized by intense psychological symptoms that are brief in duration
Fight - flight - freeze response
An involuntary and automatic response to a threat that takes the form of either escaping it, confronting it, or freezing in the face of it.
* Arousal is increased to prepare the body to perform for survival
* Adaptive response - deal with threat and minimize harm
Chronic Stress
A form of stress that endures for several months or longer
Cortisol is a hormone that is released in times of stress to aid the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal
* Released by adrenal glands
- During stress response cortisol adaptive functioning are -
* Increasing blood sugar levels
* Improving metabolism
* Energizing the body
* Reducing inflammation
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
GAS
is a biological model involving three stages of physiological reactions that a person experiences in response to a persistent stressor
-STAGES-
1. Alarm Reaction
initial decrease & subsequent increase in body arousal in response to an immediate stressor
- shock (decrease arousal)
- countershock (sympathetic ns response)
- Resistance
high levels of body arousal in response to persistent stressor
- adaptive stage - energy moved to dealing w stressor - Exhaustion
depletion of energy levels and bodily resources, resulting in an inability to cope w stressor
- prolonged cortisol exposure suppress immune system functioning
Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional model of stress and coping
Psychological stress response
1. Primary Appraisal
evaluation of the significance of the event
-Outcomes-
* Stressful - relevant to us and poses a risk to our
wellbeing
* Irrelevant - does not have any effect on our
wellbeing
* Benign or positive - leads to positive beliefs,
resulting in positive feelings and enhanced
wellbeing
If we decide that the situation is stressful then additional appraisals include:
* Harm/loss - how much damage has already
occurred
* Threat - assessment of harm/loss that may have
not yet occurred but could occur in future
- Challenge - potential for personal gain or growth from the situation
- Secondary Appraisal
Involves the evaluation of our coping options and resources and our options for dealing with he event. The coping options and resources available may be internal or external- If coping resources are perceived as inadequate
= stress - If coping resources are perceived as adequate =
no stress
- If coping resources are perceived as inadequate
The Gut
The long flexible tube from the mouth to anus that is the passageway involved in digestion
The Gut-Brain Axis
The bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through the enteric and central nervous system
Stress causes changes in gut-microbiome diversity. Links to anxiety and depression
The diversity if gut microbiota can effect psychological processes and behaviour
Diverse gut microbiota = greater overall health, positive on psychological and behaviours
The enteric ns
Controls the gut and is the subdivision of the autonomic ns
Vagus nerve
Connects the enteric ns and the CNS bidirectionally.
Coping
Process involving cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and or external stressor that are appraised as exceeding the resources of the person
Coping strategy
Is a specific method, either behavioral or psychological that people use to manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor
Context-Specific effectiveness
When the coping strategy or mechanism used is appropriate for the unique demands of the stressor
Approach strategies
Coping strategies that directly confront the source of the stress
- Seeking professional advice or counselling
- Making a plan and executing it
Avoidance strategies
Coping strategies that evade the stressor, seeking to indirectly reduce stress
* Denial
* Wishful thinking
* Re-evaluation
* Substance abuse
* Distraction
* Sleeping
Eating
classical conditioning
- Stage - before conditioning
- The neutral stimulus illicit no response
- The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits the unconditioned response (UCR)
2. During Conditioning - Repeated association of the NS before UCS to produce the UCR
3. After conditioning - The CS alone produces the Conditioned response (CR)
- The NS become the CR
Operant Conditioning
Involves an antecedent, behaviour and consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that is will reoccur
Types of Consequences
Reinforcement - consequences that increase the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
* Positive reinforcement is the addition of a desirable stimulus that icnreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
* Negative reinforcement - is the removal of an undesirable stimulus which increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring
Punishment - refers to the consequences that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
* Positive punishment - addition of an undesirable stimulus which decreases likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
* Negative punishment - removal of a desirable stimulus which decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring
Similarities and differences b/w classical & operant conditioning
Similarities
- Both are behaviourist approaches
- Both are three-phase processes of learning
Differences
- Operant conditioning involves learning voluntary behaviour
- Classical conditioning involves learning involuntary behaviour
- Learned are active during operant conditioning/ learners are passive during classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning requires a consequence/no consequence during classical conditioning
Socio-cognitive approaches to learning
observational learning
- attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- motivation
- Reinforcement
Systems of knowledge
Learning takes place within a complex system, meaning the knowledge and skills are based on interconnected social, physical and spiritual understandings, which in turn, inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.
* Informed by culture
* Consist of highly connected information
* Developed by communities working together
Connection to county
The traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group, including the geographical boundaries as well as the spiritual, emotional and intellectual entities and connections within it
Learning embedded in relationships
Kinship systems
Refer to the relationships people have with each other, the knowledges they are responsible for and the entities within Country they have a responsibility to care for
* Learning tends to be community based and intergenerational
* People are interconnected with each other, their ancestors and the natural world
* When kinship is disrupted = knowledge is disrupted
Multimodal Approaches to learning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander approaches to learning are multimodal by nature meaning that they use a variety of methods
8 ways of aboriginal learning Framework
- Story Sharing
Learning through narratives and stories- Learning Maps
Planning and visualising processes and knowledge - Non-verbal
sharing knowledge in non-verbal ways like dance, art & observation - Symbols and images
learning thru symbols, images and metaphors - Land links
learning linked to nature, land and country - Non-linear
thinking outside the square
- Learning Maps
- Deconstruct/reconstruct
breaking down a concept into diff. part to the reconstruct- Community links
connecting learning thru local values,nees
- Community links
Memory
The process of encoding, storing and retrieving info that has been previously encountered
Atkinson-Shiffrin multistore model of memory
Sensory Memory
* Receives sensory information from the environment
* Enables perceptual continuity for the world around us
Capacity - unlimited
Duration - momentary about 0.2-4 seconds
Short Term Memory (STM)
* Receives info from SM and transfers info to and from LTM
* Maintains info in conscious awareness for immediate use
Capacity - 7+/- 2 pieces of info
Duration - temporary 18-20 sec occasionally up to 30 sec
longer if rehearsed
Long Term Memory
* Information storage for re access and use
Capacity - vast - potentially unlimited
Duration - potentially permanent, some info may be lost or inaccessible, indefinite
Explicit Memory
A types of LTM that is consciously retrieved
* Also known and declarative memory
Semantic Memory
- explicit
Consists of general knowledge or facts
Verbally explained like 7 continents or digs bark
Implicit Memory
A type of LTM that is unconsciously retrieved
Procedural Memory
- implicit
Involves knowing how to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills
Like knowing how to kick a ball or ride a bike
Classically Conditioned Memory
- Implicit
Involves an involuntary response, such as fear, to a stimulus which has repeatedly been associated with an emotionally-arousing stimulus
* CC memories involve the formation of an involuntary fear response to a particular stimulus after it has been repeatedly associated with another fear inducing stimulus
Involuntary habits
Amygdala
A brain structure that is primarily involved in encoding the emotional components of memories
- Strengthens the encoding of emotional components of memories = encoded in greater detail
Hippocampus
A brain structure that is primarily involved in encoding explicit memories
neocortex
A brain structure that stores explicit memories
Basal Ganglia
Encoding and storing implicit memories, specifically those related to habit formation procedural sequences of movements and reward pathways
Cerebellum
encoding and storing implicit memories, specifically those related to unconscious habits, simple reflexes or procedural sequences of precise movements
Autobiographical events
stored in LTM and are retrieved into the STM by the interaction and overlap of both episodic and semantic memory.
- semantic (specific location or date)
- episodic (personal experiences)
Constructing Possible imagined features
hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual can create and conceptualize
- semantic (consistent w their knowledge of the world
- episodic (rich in detail due to emotional reactions linked)
Alzheimer’s Disease
- How does it affect the brain? -
- Amyloid plaques
Fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulates into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons - Neurofibrillary tangles
Accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons. Which inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kills the neuron entirely.
- Amyloid plaques
- How does it affect episodic and semantic memory -
- Damage associated with the hippocampus = struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events.
- Lack the capacity to use episodic and semantic memories to plan and construct future scenarios.
Aphantasia
A phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery
* Mental imagery: the visual representation and experiences of sensory info without the presence of sensory stimuli.
Effects
* Unable to visualise richly detailed and vivid episodic memories due to their inability to generate mental imagery
* Struggle to retrieve autobiographical events and construct possible imagined futures.
Mnemonics used by written traditions
- Acronyms -
A mnemonic device in which the 1st letters of items from and pronounceable word to aid memory - Acrostics -
The 1st letter of items create a phrase, rhyme or poem to aid memory - Method of Loci -
Converts items into mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memory- Visual items in specific well known locations
Mnemonic used by Aboriginal and Torres strait islander communities - oral traditions
- Sung narratives -
Stories that share important cultural, ecological and survival info through the use of singing, harmony and rhythm - Song Lines -
