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A2 Biology > Animal Responses > Flashcards

Animal Responses Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what connects both hemispheres of the brain

A

the corpus callosum

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2
Q

what three things protects the CNS

A

1) meninges fluid
2) cerebrospinal fluid
3) skull and vertebrate bones

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3
Q

name the four lobes of the brain

A

frontal lobe
parietal lobe
occipital lobe
temporal lobe

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4
Q

describe the cerebrum

A

largest part of the brain
2 hemispheres
connected by corpus callosum
surface area of approx 2.5m2

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5
Q

what is the cerebral cortex

A

a thin layer of nerve cell bodies known as the cerebral cortex

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6
Q

what is the function of the cerebral cortex

A
  • conscious thought and emotional responses
  • ability to override some reflexes
  • intelligence, reasoning, judgement, imagination
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7
Q

what are the three areas of the cerebral cortex

A

sensory areas- recieve impulses from receptors
association area- interpret the input and judge the appropriate response
motor areas- send impulses to effectors ( muscles and glands)

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8
Q

what are the functions of the cerebellum

A

fine tunes muscles for body position, to remain upright and balanced

fine tunes tensioning and feedback

operation of antagonistic muscles

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9
Q

what is the function of the hypothalamus

A

managing hormone levels
controlling codys homeostatic mechanisms, eg temp control and osmoregulation
controls autonomic nervous system

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10
Q

describe osmoregulation

A

blood flows through the hypothalamus and the water potential is monitored
hypothalamus produces ADH which is stroed in the pituitary gland
released in blood when water potential of blood drops

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11
Q

what does the pituitary gland regulate

A

hunger, thirst, body temp, reproductive hormones, ADH and ACTH

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12
Q

what does the medulla oblongata regulate

A

breathing rate
heart rate
circulation
swallowing, salivation, vomiting reflex

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13
Q

what does the medulla oblongata control

A

all involuntary muscles

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14
Q

what are the two parts of the pituitary gland

A

anterior (front)

posterior (back)

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15
Q

what are the two divisons of the CNS

A

brain and spinal cord and (intermediate neurons)

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16
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system

A

sensory and motor neurones that transmit impulses to and from the CNS

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17
Q

what can the peripheral nervous system be divided into, what can this further be divided into

A

peripheral:

1) somatic
2) autonomic

autonomic:

1) sympathetic
2) parasympathetic

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18
Q

what does the somatic nervous system

A

controls voluntary movements

motor neurones, myelinated neurones

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19
Q

what does the autonomic nervous system do

A

controls involuntary movement

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20
Q

what are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and what are there functions

A

sympathetic- fight or flight, motor unmyelinated neurones to smooth muscles or glands

parasympathetic- rest or digest, motor unmyelinated neurones to smooth muscles or glands

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21
Q

what neurotransmitter is involved in either the sympathetic or parasympathetic branch

A

sympathetic- noradrenaline

parasympathetic- acetylcholine

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22
Q

what are 2 of the differences between the autonomic and somatic nervous system

A 
autonomic= unmyelinated motor neurones
somatic= myelinated motor neurones 
autonomic= 2 motor neurones to effector
somatic= 1 motor neurone to effector
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23
Q

what is the ganglion

A

a specialised synapse of peripheral nervous system outside of the brain

24
Q

what are some of the differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

A 
symp= most active in times of stress
parasym= most active in times of relaxation 
symp= ganglion outside of spinal cord
parasymp= ganglion within the target tissue 
symp= post ganglionic neurones secrete noradrenaline
parasymp= post ganglionic neurone secrete acetylcholine
25
Q

what are the three types of muscle

A

skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
involuntary muscle

26
Q

describe skeletal muscle

A 
striated
cylindrical cells are multinucleate 
found attached to bone 
controlled by somatic nervous system 
contracts quickly, tires easily
27
Q

describe involuntary muscle

A

unstriated
spindle-shaped cells each have a single nucleus
found in the walls of tubular structures, such as the gut, blood vessels and ducts
controlled by autonomic nervous system
contracts slowly, fatigues slowly

28
Q

describe cardiac muscle

A 
semi-striated
cylindrical cells each with a single nucleus 
found only in heart 
controlled by the ANS
contracts spontaneously without fatigue
29
Q

what is the function of cardiac muscle

A

to pump blood around the body

myogenic

30
Q

what is the purpose of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle

A

membrane with gaps for free ion diffusion, for quick and easy action potential transmission

31
Q

where do we find involuntary muscle

A

intestine walls
iris of the eye
blood vessel walls
bronchi/ bronchioles

32
Q

what is the muscle fibre that makes up skeletal muscle composed of

A

many myofibrils

each myofibril is made up of thin actin protein and thick myosin

33
Q

what happens when a action potential reached a neuromuscular junction

A

1) action potential causes Ca2+ ion channels to open and this causes vesicles to fuse with pre-synaptic membrane, releasing acetylcholine by exocytosis
2) Ach binds to receptors assosciated with Na+ ion channels in muscle fibre membrane (sarcolemma)
3) na ion channels open in sarcolemma and na+ move into muscle fibre- depolarisation of t tubule system
4) t tubule system depolarisation causes ca2+ ions stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to be released
5) calcium ions bind to muscle protein troponin which causes muscle contraction
6) acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine to reverse the process

34
Q

what are motor units

A

when different degrees of muscle contraction are required. branched neurones at the muscular junctions attach to a cluster of muscle cells
the more motor units stimulated the greater the force of contraction

35
Q

Which section of a sarcomere contains:

1) only myosin
2) only actin
3) both actin and myosin

A

1) H zone
2) I band
3) A band

36
Q

What does the mnemonic AIMHAMA mean

A

Actin I band
Myosin H band
Actin myosin A band

37
Q

What is the sarcomere

A

The distance between two Z lines

38
Q

Describe the thickness of myosin and actin

A

Actin is thin

Myosin is thick

39
Q

What is troponin

What happens when it changes shape

A

A protein complex that changes shape when Ca2+ ions bind to it causing tropomyosin to move which exposes the actin myosin binding site

40
Q

Describe the process of sliding filament hypothesis

A

1) ATP detaches myosin head from actin myosin bunting site on actin
2) hydrolysis of ATP to ADP + Pi to give energy to resit the myosin head
3) sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ as action potential reaches neuromuscular junction
4) Ca2+ binds to troponin
5) troponin changes shape, tropomyosin moves exposing the actin- myosin bonding site
6) myosin head attaches to actin myosin binding site forming cross bridges
7) the ADP and Pi molecule is released and the myosin head moved, causing actin filaments to slide past the stationary myosin filaments

41
Q

What is ATP used for in the sliding filament hypothesis

A

ATP is needed to provide energy to cock the myosin head so it can bind to actin

ATP is needed to break the cross bridges

ATP is needed to actively transport Ca2+ from sarcoplasm back into the reticulum

42
Q

Why do fast twitch muscles store creatine phosphate

A

Can donate a phosphate to restore ATP as follows. This needs phosphocreatinase enzyme

43
Q

What are the cardiovascular centres connected to

A

The SAN

44
Q

What nervous system controls the SAN

A

The accelerator nerve which increases heart rate is controlled by sympathetic nerve

The vagus nerve which decreases heart rate is controlled by parasympathetic nervous system

45
Q

What do the vagus and accelerator nerve control

A

The frequency of contraction

46
Q

What neurotransmitter is secreted by accelerator nerve

Describe the pre-ganglionic neurone

A

Noradrenaline

Short

47
Q

What neurotransmitter is released at vagus nerve

Describe pre-ganglionic neurone

A

Acetylcholine

Long preganglionic neurone

48
Q

What happens when exercising

A

-CO2 levels increase which lowers pH of blood due to HCO3- ions
-chemo receptors detect change and send message to cardiovascular centre in medulla oblongata
-accelerator centre increases frequency of action potentials down synpathetic nerve to SAN
-SAN nose increases wave of excitation
↪️increases blood flow CO2 is removed quicker

49
Q

What happens when blood pressure increases

A

-Stretch receptors (baroreceptors) detect change and send impulses to CVC in medulla oblongata
-inhibitory centre increases frequency of impulses down vagus nerve to SAN
-SAN nose decreases wave of excitation
↪️heart rate decreases and blood pressure returns to normal

50
Q

Name 5 physiological changes that happen in the fight or flight response

A

1) pupils dilate
2) blood flow to gut decreases
3) heart rate increases
4) ventilation rate increases
5) metabolic rate increases

51
Q

Why do bronchioles dilate in flight or fight

A

Involuntary muscle relaxes

More O2 enters lungs and diffuse into blood

52
Q

Name two other mechanisms animals have to fight or flight

A

Play dead

Camouflage

53
Q

Describe the massive long process of how the hormonal and SNS work together in the fight or flight response

A

1)receptor receives auditory /visual threat
2) nerve impulse transmitted along sensory neurone To cerebral cortex and hypothalamus is activated:
1️⃣nervous system
1) activated SNS
2) adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into blood
2️⃣endocrine system
1) releases CRF into pituitary gland
2) anterior pituitary gland releases hormone ACTH
3) ACTH causes adrenal cortex to release hormones like cortisol into blood
↪️fight or flight response

54
Q

⭐️Describe second messenger model⭐️

A

Adrenaline is 1st messenger: binds to receptors

Activates enzyme adenyl Cyclase which can convert many ATPs into many cAMP

cAMP second messenger activated many other enzymes in different cells

In this case Glycogen Phosphorylase (causes glycogenolysis)

55
Q

What happens to the bands when the myofibril contracts

A

A band remains constant
I band decreases
H zone decreases
Z lines move closer together

56
Q

Explain how an increased concentration of hydrogen ions leads to a reduction in the force of contraction of the muscle (reduces ability for calcium ions to bind)

A

Fewer calcium ions bind to troponin
Fewer troponin changes shape
Fewer tropomyosin moves
Fewer binding sites on actin available

Fewer actin myosin cross bridges
Power stroke reduced
Actin filaments pulled past myosin with less force

A2 Biology (8 decks)

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