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BIOL 1030 > Animal Reproduction and Development > Flashcards

Animal Reproduction and Development Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?

A

Sexual reproduction: creation of offspring by fusion of male gamete and female gamete

Asexual reproduction: creation of offspring though cloning offspring.

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2
Q

What is binary fission?

A

Asexual reproduction where separation of the parent cell into two new daughter cells

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3
Q

What is budding?

A

Asexual reproduction where new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones

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4
Q

What is fragmentation?

A

Asexual reproduction where the body is broken into pieces and some/all develop into adults. It must be accompanied with regeneration.

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5
Q

What is Parthegenosis?

A

Asexual reproduction where development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg (mainly invertebrates)

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6
Q

What are 3 potential advantages of genetic recombination as a result of advantages?

A
  1. Increase in variation, resulting in increase in reproductive success of parents
  2. Increase in rate of adaptation
  3. Shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmful genes from a population
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7
Q

What is ovulation?

A

Release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female reproductive cycle. Controlled by hormones and environmental cues.

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8
Q

What is hermaphroditism? How does it relate to autogamy?

A

Having both male and female reproductive systems. Autogamy (self fertilization) is only achieved in hermaphrodites.

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9
Q

What is sex reversal?

A

Exhibit male to female reversal (e.g. oysters) or female to male reversal (e.g. coral reef fish)

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10
Q

What is the difference between external and internal fertilization?

A

External: Eggs are shed by the female into an moist external environment in which the male releases sperm.

Internal: Sperm is deposited in or near the female reproductive tract and fertilization occurs within the tract. Requires behavioural interactions and compatible copulatory organs.

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11
Q

How fertilization timed?

A

Fertilization requires critical timing which is mediated by environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship behaviour.

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12
Q

Why does external fertilization produce more gametes than species?

A

Species with external fertilization produce more gametes than species with internal fertilization because the likelihood for fertilization is low due to the open environment.

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13
Q

How is the survival of the offpsring endured through internal fertilization?

A

Internal: Retaining embryo in internal environment and more parental care.

In amniote eggs: calcium and protein containing shells and internal membranes for protection

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14
Q

What are gonads? How are they formed?

A

Organs in sexual species that make gametes (if none, made from undifferentiated tissue). May include accessory tubes/glands to carry/nourish/protect developing embryos.

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15
Q

What is an insects reproductive system?

A

Complex reproductive system per sex. In most, females have spermathecae (sperm storage during copulation)

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16
Q

What is a cloaca?

A

Non-mammalian vertebrate opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems.

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17
Q

What is the difference between human reproductive systems (M/F) and the reproductive systems in other vertebrates?

A

Female: Both usually have two ovaries, but one may or may not develop. Humans have single uterus, but other vertebrates have two separate uteri.

Male: Differences exist primarily in copulatory organs

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18
Q

What is monogamy?

A

Mating with one individual only. It is relatively rare, though some species have evolved mechanisms that decrease the chance of their mate mating with another individual.

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19
Q

What are the features in male reproductive anatomy?

A

Testes, ducts, accessory glands, penis.

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20
Q

What are testes? What do they do? Why are they external?

A

Testes are male gonads (form sperm) that consist of highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules) surrounded by connective tissue. They are external structures because sperm production cannot occur at internal temperatures.

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21
Q

What are the ducts found of the male reproductive system?

A

Seminiferous tubules of a testis pass sperm into the epididymis, then the vas deferens, then the ejaculatory duct, and then the urethra.

22
Q

What are the accessory glands of the male reproductive system and what do they do?

A

2x Seminal vesicles: produce thick secretion of mucous, coagulating enzyme, nutrients, and regulators for the sperm. Take up 60% of total volume of semen.

Prostate gland: produce thin secretion of anticoagulant enzymes and sperm nutrients.

Bulbourethral glands: pair of small glands below prostate that secretes clear mucuous neutralizing any acidic urine in the urethra.

23
Q

What is the purpose/structure of the penis?

A

Shaft inserted into female reproductive opening to deposit sperm. Constructed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue that fill with blood during sexual arousal, a thin skinned glans surrounded by a foreskin (prepuce)

24
Q

What are the features in female reproductive anatomy?

A

Ovaries, Oviducts/Uterus, Vagina/vulva, Mammary glands

25
Q

What are ovaries?

A

Female gonads that lie in the abdominal cavity that are lined with oocyte-carrying follicles.

26
Q

What are oviducts?

A

Aka fallopian tube, extends from uterus towards each ovary. When eggs are released during ovulation, cilia on epithelial lining of duct collect the egg and convey the egg to the uterus with wave like contractions.

27
Q

What is the uterus?

A

Thick muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to accommodate a 4kg fetus. The endometrium (inner lining) is supplied with blood vessels and the neck (cervix) opens into the vagina.

28
Q

What is the vagina?

A

Muscular/elastic chamber that is the site for insertion of the penis and deposition of sperm during copulation and the canal where a baby is born.

29
Q

What is the vulva?

A

Collective term for external female genitalia. Include:

labia majora: thick, fatty ridges
labia minora: slender skin folds
hymen: covers vaginal opening and is ruptured by sexual activity/physical activity
Clitoris: erectile tissue supporting a rounded glans covered by a prepuce.

30
Q

What are mammary glands?

A

present in both sexes but normally produce milk in females. Small sacs of epithelial tissue secret milk and drains into ducts that open at the nipple.

31
Q

What is the theory of recpitulation?

A

Discovered by Haeckel: The development of the individual human follows the evolutionary history of the entire human species (e.g. cell to fish to amphibian to reptile to bird)

32
Q

What are model organisms?

A

Species chosen for the ease with which they can be studied in the laboratory (e.g. drosophila melanogaster)

33
Q

What are the steps of fertilization?

A
  1. Contact
  2. Acrosomal reaction/Fusion of sperm and egg membranes
  3. Cortical reaction
  4. Egg activation
  5. Entry of sperm nucleus.
34
Q

What happens during contact of sperm and egg?

A

Sperm contacts egg’s jelly coat which triggers the exocytosis of the sperms acrosome vesicle at tip of sperm head)

35
Q

What happens during the acrosomal reaction?

A
  1. Hydrolytic enzymes are released from the acrosome and partially digest the jelly coat, letting the acrosomal process elongate and penetrate the jelly coat.
  2. Proteins on the tip of the process bind to receptor proteins on the egg membrane which fuses the membranes together.
  3. Sodium ions diffuse into the egg and depolarize the membrane which prevents additional sperm from binding to the egg’s membrane, blocking polyspermy.
36
Q

What happens in the cortical reaction?

A
  1. Upon fertilization, Ca2+ spreads across the cell and triggers the fusion of cortical granules (vesicles in cortex of cytoplasm) with egg plasma membrane.
  2. Contents are released into the space between plasma membrane and vitelline layer (non-mammal) or zona pellucida (mammals).
  3. Enzymes and other macromolecules from granules lifts the vitelline layer/zona pellucida away from the egg and hardens into a fertilization envelope.
37
Q

How is the egg activated post-fertilization?

A

Activation of the egg is defined as the rapid changes in metabolism (cellular respiration and protein synthesis) as a result of the rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol post-fertilization.

38
Q

What happens during the entry of the sperm nucleus?

A

After the sperm nucleus enters the egg, it merges with the egg nucleus and cell division begins.

39
Q

What is cleavage?

A

A period of rapid cell division without growth following fertilization. Large egg cell turns into many smaller blastomeres, which form a blastocoel.

40
Q

Why is cleavage sometimes asymmetric?

A

The distribution of the yolk is uneven, forming a vegetal pole (more yolk) and an animal pole (less yolk)

41
Q

What is morphogenesis?

A

the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations via gastrulation and organogenesis

42
Q

What is gastrulation?

A

Blastula invaginates to create a lip and continue to move from embryo surface into the embryo and creates a gastrula. Has three tissue layers: ectoderm (outer layer), endoderm (lines digestive tract), and mesoderm (fills space between endoderm and ectoderm)

43
Q

What 5 things does the ectoderm develop into?

A
  1. Epidermis of the skin and its derivatives (integumentary system)
  2. Nervous and sensory systems
  3. Pituitary gland, adrenal medulla
  4. Jaws and teeth
  5. Germ cells (pre-gametes)
44
Q

What 5 things does the mesoderm develop into?

A
  1. Skeletal and muscular systems
  2. circulatory nad lymphatic systems
  3. excretory and reproductive systems
  4. dermis of the skin
  5. Adrenal cortex
45
Q

What 3 things does the endoderm develop into?

A
  1. Epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas)
  2. Epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts and ducts
  3. Thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands
46
Q

What are the steps of gastrulation in humans?

A
  1. after cleavage, the 100+ cell mass forms a blastocyst with an inner cell mass at one end
  2. The trophoblast, outer epithelium of blastocyst initiates implantation into the endometrium
  3. after implantation, the trophoblast keeps expanding into the endometrium and forms four new membranes: allantois, amnion, chorion, and yolk sac (very little yolk)
  4. embryonic membranes enclose specialized structures outside the embryo and then invaginate from inward movement of the epiblast (upper layer of now flattened inner cell mass)
47
Q

How did amniotes develop?

A

The evolution of shelled eggs and the uterus of marsupial and eutherian mammals allowed embryos to be surrounded by fluid in an amnion (sac) to protect it from desiccation and give the ability to reproduce on dry land.

48
Q

What are the purposes of the extraembryonic membranes that surround the embryo?

A

chorion: gas exchange
amnion: encloses amniotic fluid
yolk sac: encases yolk
allantois: disposes of waste and contributes to gas exchange

49
Q

What happens during organogenesis?

A
  • Regions of germ layers develop into rudimentary organs
  • notocord in vertebrates forms from dorsal mesoderm
  • signalling mollecules secreted by notocord and other mesodermal cells induce neurulation
50
Q

What is neurulation?

A

neural plate folds inwards to create neural tube, which breaks off from the outer ectoderm and develops into the central nervous system.

51
Q

What causes the cellular mechanisms of morphogenesis? Give an example.

A

reorganization of microtubules and microfilaments enable a cell to migrate to a new location and change cell shape. E.g. ectoderm lengthens cells during neurulation by orienting microtubules from dorsal to ventral

52
Q

What is apoptosis? When does it occur?

A

Apoptosis is programmed cell death. It occurs when cells stop developing to which they are engulfed by neighbouring cells, as well as when an early structure that no longer functions in later stages needs to be eliminated during later development.

BIOL 1030 (13 decks)

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