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Fall 2022 > Animal Physiology Exam 3 > Flashcards

Animal Physiology Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

All water compounds contain what?

A

dissolved salts, gases, and organic compounds

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2
Q

What is physiologically important?

A

Temperature and water compounds

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3
Q

Body fluids account for how much of body weight?

A

60%

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4
Q

What are the 3 major body fluid compartments?

A

(1) intracellular
(2) interstitial
(3) blood plasma

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5
Q

Which body fluid compartments have similar ionic compositions?

A

blood plasma & interstitial fluids

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6
Q

Which body fluid compartment usually has very different Na, K, etc.. compositions?

A

intracellular fluids

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7
Q

Osmoregulation

A

regulation of water & ion balance

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8
Q

Ionic regulation

A

adjusting particular ionic concentrations

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9
Q

Excretion

A

elimination of metabolic wastes

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10
Q

body fluids are what?

A

dilute saline solutions

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11
Q

Excretion & osmoregulation are managed by the same what?

A

organs

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12
Q

Optimal function requires hydration state & [solute] to be what?

A

maintained within relatively narrow limits

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13
Q

What the main problem in terms of water and ion balance?

A

proper internal conditions almost always very different from environmental conditions

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14
Q

What is necessary to maintain water and ion balance?

A

regulatory mechanisms

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15
Q

Osmolarity

A

measure of the solute concentration of a solution; depends on # of dissolved particles

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16
Q

Hyperosmotic

A

[body fluids] > environment

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17
Q

Isosmotic

A

[solute] of body fluids = environment

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18
Q

Hyposmotic

A

[body fluids] < environment

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19
Q

Most marine inverts are what?

A

Osmoconformers; isosmotic with seawater; but they often regulate certain solute concentration to some extent

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20
Q

Freshwater animals are all what?

A

osmoregulators

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21
Q

Freshwater animals maintain what?

A

hyperosmotic body fluids

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22
Q

Marine vertebrates are almost always what?

A

hyposmotic osmoregulators

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23
Q

Terrestrial environments vary greatly in what?

A

temperature & humidity

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24
Q

U/P ratio

A

index of action of the kidneys in osmotic regulation

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25
Q

isosmotic urine

A

U/P = 1; e.g. seabirds

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26
Q

Hyposmotic urine

A

U/P < 1; e.g. freshwater organisms

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27
Q

Hyperosmotic urine

A

U/P > 1; e.g. terrestrial mammals, insects, marine mammals

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28
Q

What are the 3 sources of water?

A

drinking water, dietary water, metabolic water

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29
Q

Dietary water

A

preformed water in plant & animal tissues

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30
Q

Desert mammals gain water from where?

A

dietary &/or metabolic

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31
Q

How do kangaroo rats compare to lab rats?

A

Kangaroo rats retain more water because they lose less water through their wastes (feces & urine)

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32
Q

What does a freshwater animal’s blood plasma composition look like compared to a river?

A

higher ion concentrations and higher osmotic pressure

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33
Q

Freshwater animals are what compared to ambient water?

A

hyperosmotic

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34
Q

Freshwater animals gain and lose what from gills?

A

Gain: water, Na+, Cl-
Lose: salt

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35
Q

Freshwater animals gain what from food?

A

salt (ions) & water (don’t drink)

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36
Q

Freshwater lose what from feces?

A

salt & water; large amounts of urine, very hyposmotic to plasma

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37
Q

What structure is on lobsters that dilutes urine?

A

corpious

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38
Q

Freshwater animals have dilute what?

A

blood plasma & urine

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39
Q

Bicarbonate ions and protons are actively (require ATP) exchanged for what in the gills of Freshwater fish?

A

Cl- and Na+

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40
Q

Marine water animals are what to seawater?

A

isosmotic

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41
Q

Hagfish are what?

A

Marine, stenohaline, osmoconformers & isosmotic

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42
Q

Hagfish have to influx or efflux of what?

A

water

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43
Q

Hagfish undergo what kind of regulation like marine invertebrates?

A

ionic regulation

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44
Q

Marine teleost gain and lose what from gills?

A

Gain: salt
Lose: water, Cl- (active) & Na+ (passive or active)

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45
Q

Marine teleost lose what from feces & urine?

A

Salts and water; small amounts of urine; nearly isosmotic to plasma, rich in Mg 2+ & SO4 2-

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46
Q

Marine teleost gain what from food & seawater?

A

salts & water

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47
Q

Whats the problem for osmoregulating marine air breathing vertebrates?

A

high salt load; Receive high salt from food and drink

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48
Q

What the solution to marine air breathing vertebrate osmoregulators problem?

A

Kidney & extrarenal salt glands

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49
Q

Kidney

A

excretes hyperosmotic urine (relative to body fluids) in birds and mammals

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50
Q

Extrarenal salt glands

A

produce highly concentrated fluid containing mainly NaCl; intermittent function in response to high salt loads; e.g. birds, sea turtles

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51
Q

What is the advantage of living in a terrestrial environment? disadvantage?

A

advantage: abundant oxygen
disadvantage: major water loss

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52
Q

What two groups have successfully invaded land?

A

arthropods & vertebrates

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53
Q

Some groups who live in terrestrial environments have to exploit what?

A

moist environments

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54
Q

What is the key to reducing water loss on land?

A

integumentary permeability; high resistance (thick skin)

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55
Q

Rate of water loss equation

A

J = K x (WVPi - WVPo) / X

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56
Q

What contributes to decreased permeability of the integument?

A

Thin layers, increasing temperature (transition temperature), lipid composition

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57
Q

Lipids undergo what as temperature increases?

A

phase changes, which leads to more water loss

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58
Q

Transition temperature

A

temperature at which water loss increases drastically rather than gradually

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59
Q

Variation in lipid composition exists among what?

A

population of single species & related species

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60
Q

Organisms that use what is at a major disadvantage in terms of respiratory water loss?

A

cutaneous respiration

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61
Q

Mammals, birds & reptiles control respiratory water loss via what?

A

regulating breathing movements

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62
Q

Insects open & close what?

A

spiracles to tracheal system

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63
Q

How is water conserved by cooling exhalant air done?

A

countercurrent mechanism in the nasal passage

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64
Q

Total respiratory water loss is dependent on what?

A

body size and phylogeny

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65
Q

Smaller organisms have what in terms of water loss?

A

greater evaporative water loss

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66
Q

Osmoregulation of earthworms

A
  • lose water via evaporation through skin
  • live in damp soil
  • osmoregulate like freshwater animals
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67
Q

Osmoregulation of amphibians

A
  • lose water via evaporation
  • in water, osmoregulate like freshwater animals
  • must live near or in water/humid air
  • skin is main osmoregulatory organ
  • actively pump in Na & Cl follows passively
  • lots of urine
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68
Q

Osmoregulation of desert frogs

A
  • live underground during drought
  • explosively breed after rainfall
  • some australian frogs: store 30% water as dilute urine in bladder; [Urea] is high
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69
Q

Stenohaline

A

survive in only narrow range of salinities

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70
Q

Euryhaline

A

survive across broad range of salinities

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71
Q

Osmoconformers

A

permit blood osmotic pressure to match ambient osmotic pressure

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72
Q

Osmoregulators

A

maintain relatively stable osmotic pressure despite ambient variation

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73
Q

What are the salinity trends in estuaries?

A

higher salinity closer to sea; brackish water animals typically euryhaline

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74
Q

What are the two types of osmotic regulation?

A

hyper-isosmotic & Hyper-hyposmotic

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75
Q

hyper-isosmotic

A

regulate at low water concentration, isosmotic at high water concentration

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76
Q

hyper-hyposmotic

A

regulate at low and high water concentrations

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77
Q

Frogs and toads have high water loss because of what?

A

low skin resistance

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78
Q

Some frogs and toads have what? Or secrete what?

A

impermeable or secrete a waxy substance to increase resistance

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79
Q

Some frogs and toads excrete what?

A

Uric acid

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80
Q

How does Urea compare to Uric acid?

A

-urea at high concentrations is toxic & must be highly diluted
- Uric acid is not as toxic & reduces excretory water loss

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81
Q

Lower elevations are typically?

A

warmer & drier (high VPD)

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82
Q

If salamanders are acclimated to cool conditions & exposed to high VPD then what occurs?

A

water loss increases

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83
Q

If salamanders are acclimated to cool conditions & exposed to warmer environment then what occurs?

A

lose less water

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84
Q

heat loss equals what?

A

heat gain

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85
Q

Body temperature depends on what?

A

heat exchange with environment

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86
Q

Animals obey the laws of what?

A

thermodynamics

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87
Q

What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

A

in an isolated system, change is always towards disorder; energy from outside (an open system) is necessary to maintain order

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88
Q

Why must animals consume energy?

A

because energy is lost when moved through system

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89
Q

Energy enters an animal’s body as what?

A

chemical energy

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90
Q

Energy leaves an animals body as what?

A

heat, chemical energy or external work

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91
Q

Absorbed chemical energy is used to perform what three major types of physiological work inside the body?

A

1) biosynthesis
2) maintenance
3) generation of external work

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92
Q

Metabolic rate

A

quantity of energy used per unit time

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93
Q

Aerobic

A

oxidative metabolism of food into ATP

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94
Q

oxidative metabolism

A

Chemical bonds of glucose (generally) broken to produce energy; requires oxygen; e.g. cellular respiration

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95
Q

Anaerobic

A

ATP production without oxidative metabolism; e.g. glycolysis

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96
Q

Anaerobic is faster but…

A

less efficient; makes less ATP

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97
Q

How is metabolic rate calculated?

A

direct calorimetry or indirect calorimetry

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98
Q

Why is metabolic rate important?

A
  • determines how much food an organism needs
  • provides quantitative measure of the total activity of all physiological mechanisms
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99
Q

Direct calorimetry

A

directly measuring the rate of heat loss from an animals body; Lavoisier’s experiment

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100
Q

Latent heat of fusion

A

energy necessary to change from solid to liquid

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101
Q

Lavoisier’s experiment

A
  • surrounded the animal with an ice-filled jacket to measure heat production
  • enclosed the apparatus in an outer ice-filled jacket to intercept environmental heat
  • Ice melted by the animal yielded liquid water for measurement
102
Q

Indirect calorimetry

A

measuring gas exchange to obtain metabolic rate

103
Q

What is measured in gas exchange?

A

O2 consumption & CO2 production

104
Q

Why does measuring gas exchange (indirect calorimetry) work?

A

when Glucose is oxidized at a fixed proportion of O2 is used and CO2 produced; thus, heat production can be measured from gas exchange

105
Q

6O2 equals what in heat?

A

2820 kJ

106
Q

Is measuring gas exchange always accurate?

A

no

107
Q

Respiratory quotient (RQ)

A

respiratory exchange ratio; a method of determining what food is being metabolized

108
Q

RQ ratio of carbs

A

1

109
Q

RQ ratio of lipids

A

.71

110
Q

RQ ratio of proteins

A

.83

111
Q

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

minimum metabolic required for maintenance

112
Q

BMR is measured during/in?

A

post-absorptive state, at rest, at specified temperature (thermo-neutral zone)

113
Q

BMR is called what in ectotherms?

A

Standard metabolic rate (SMR)

114
Q

Activity metabolism

A

increased activity results in increased aerobic metabolism up to a point (maximal metabolic rate)

115
Q

Aerobic capacity

A

point at which metabolism can be supported aerobically

116
Q

If metabolism supersedes aerobic capacity then it can be supported by what?

A

anaerobic metabolism (comes with consequences)

117
Q

Aerobic scope

A

MMR - BMR

118
Q

Factorial scope

A

MMR/BMR; generally about 10 for vertebrates

119
Q

Aerobic scope in generally higher for what?

A

active animals

120
Q

Endotherms aerobic maximum metabolic rate is generally what compared to ectotherms?

A

10x greater

121
Q

Temperature effects aerobic scope for activity in what?

A

ectotherms

122
Q

The maximal capacity for activity for ectotherms occurs at what?

A

temperatures near those experienced in nature

123
Q

What largely effects metabolic rate?

A

physical activity & environmental temperature

124
Q

What has a minor effect on metabolic rate?

A

ingestion of a meal, body size, gender, age, environmental oxygen levels, hormonal status, time of day, salinity

125
Q

What effects BMR?

A

age, sex, circadian phase, season, digestive state, phylogeny, body size, temperature (ectotherms), habits & habitat

126
Q

Circadian phase effects on BMR

A

BMR higher during active phase than resting

127
Q

Digestive state effects on BMR

A

energy is required for digestion; increased metabolic rate due to digestive processes (specific dynamic action [SDA])

128
Q

Digestive state effect on BMR differs based on what?

A

type & size of food ingested; greatest change for proteins (up 20-30%)

129
Q

Its important to measure BMR in animals in what state?

A

post-absorptive state

130
Q

phylogeny effects on BMR

A

varies among vertebrate classes and between other taxonomic groups

131
Q

habits & habitats effects on BMR

A

Varies depending on food habits & habitat
- Habitat e.g. tropical species of birds & salamanders have a lower BMR than temperate species
- Habits e.g. mammalian carnivores BMR is higher

132
Q

BMR may vary among populations inhabiting different environments at what?

A

different times of the year
- e.g. Fence lizards in NJ have higher BMR than lizards in SC during the summer, but not during the spring or fall

133
Q

Metabolic rate and body size is expressed in what two ways?

A

1) whole-animal
2) mass-specific

134
Q

Why is the slope of metabolic rate & weight less than 1?

A

Theres a compromise between size and SA; as body mass increases the SA: BM ratio decreases

135
Q

Anaerobic scope

A

the maximal rate of lactate production by glycolysis during activity minus resting lactate production

136
Q

Anaerobic metabolism cannot what?

A

be sustained long

137
Q

Build up of lactate in tissues is what?

A

deleterious to enzyme & muscle function & has negative impacts on hemoglobin loading capacity in the blood

138
Q

Anaerobic scope tends to be larger in animals that what?

A

use rapid bursts of energy (rapid burst of locomotion)

139
Q

Activity increases what?

A

Metabolic rate to the max metabolic rate

140
Q

Max metabolic rate varies with what?

A

temperature & body mass

141
Q

Sustained locomotion may be required for what?

A

escape, foraging, defense, mating, courtship

142
Q

Initial stages of activity or burst of activity use what?

A

anaerobic energy

143
Q

Long-term activity must occur within what?

A

aerobic limits

144
Q

Maximum metabolic rate sets what?

A

limits on sustained activity & behaviors

145
Q

How is locomotive energetics measured?

A

by quantifying O2 consumption at a steady rate

146
Q

While walking or running what increases linearly with speed?

A

VO2 (metabolic rate); increases to VO2 max

147
Q

Maximal aerobic speed

A

speed at which VO2 (max)

148
Q

Lower speeds can be sustained for what?

A

longer (aerobic reliant)

149
Q

Y-intercept

A

Metabolic rate at 0 speed

150
Q

Why is metabolic Rate at zero speed higher than BMR?

A

posture

151
Q

Net cost of transport (COT)

A
  • slope of line from zero speed to max aerobic speed
  • amount of energy required to travel a distance (independent of time & speed)
152
Q

Total cost of transport

A

VO2 (MR) at x speed/ x speed
- highly speed dependent

153
Q

As speed increases what decreases with distance?

A

energy

154
Q

Most economical transport is achieved when moving close to what?

A

maximal aerobic speed

155
Q

In mechanical vehicles what increases exponentially?

A

power

156
Q

linear increase of aerobic input with speed may what?

A

be unexpected

157
Q

COT total equation

A

metabolic rate / speed

158
Q

Animals naturally change what that has the lowest energy expenditure at a given speed?

A

gait

159
Q

A linear function approximates what about VO2?

A

Its maintained across a range of speeds

160
Q

What differs in metabolic capacities and locomotor capacities?

A

endotherms and ectotherms

161
Q

What is similar between endotherms and ectotherms in terms of energy?

A

net cost of transport; similar speeds require similar energy inputs

162
Q

Ectotherms reach what at lower speeds?

A

aerobic limits

163
Q

Ectotherms have what?

A

lower maximal aerobic speeds (MAS)

164
Q

Endoderms can engage in what?

A

broader range of locomotory activities than ectotherms; correlated with greater aerobic scope

165
Q

Energy cost of locomotion does not what?

A

increase proportionately with body mass; instead mass ^ .7

166
Q

On a mass specific basis, the cost of moving a unit of mass is what for larger animals?

A

less; mass ^ -.3

167
Q

Smaller animals require what?

A

more energy to move

168
Q

energy increases as what? why?

A

size decreases; large animals move faster

169
Q

Lower body temperatures do what?

A

conserve energy (low MR), BUT aerobically sustainable behaviors are limited

170
Q

Higher body temperatures allow what?

A

more behaviors, BUT with more energy

171
Q

minimal cost of transport is what at low and high body temperatures?

A

similar

172
Q

An animal with high body temperature may reduce transport cost by what?

A

traveling faster

173
Q

Why is temperature important?

A

1) species distribution
2) Metabolism & rate of O2 consumption
3) hatching time & food distribution

174
Q

How does increasing temperature effect metabolism and rate of O2 consumption?

A

aerobic scope decreased; MMR decreased & BMR increased

175
Q

What are the two main thermal strategies?

A

tolerance and regulation

176
Q

Physiological regulation

A
  • redirect blood flow for increased heat gain/ loss
  • vasodilation & vasoconstriction
177
Q

Behavioral thermoregulation

A

reposition body relative to heat source

178
Q

thermoregulators

A

maintain a particular mean or variance of body temperature using neural mechanisms (hypothalamus) to sense & respond to the environment

179
Q

Early studies of thermoregulation focused on what?

A

relationship between ambient (air) temperature and body temperature

180
Q

Perfect thermoregulator

A

no body temperature change with air temperature change

181
Q

Perfect thermorconformer

A

body temperature equals air temperature

182
Q

What was the pitfall of early studies?

A

water-filled beer cans seemed to have thermoregulated in Heath’s experiment; In actuality the physical properties of the can differed from those of air, making it appear as though the can thermoregulated

183
Q

What did the lizard skin mold experiment show?

A

showed more temperature tolerance to a wider range of temperatures in models than in real lizards

184
Q

What is the acute effect of temperature on metabolic rate equation?

A

Q10 = R(t) / R(t-10)

185
Q

In ectotherms/poikilotherms, Q10 is what?

A

2-3

186
Q

What is a chronic response to metabolic rate?

A

Acclimation; blunts response to changes in temperature

187
Q

What cellular/biochemical mechanisms drive acclimation?

A

abundance of mitochondria/unit muscle & activity of cytochrome oxidase per mitochondrial protein

188
Q

Thermal performance curves assess what?

A

the physiological benefits of selecting a particular body temperature

189
Q

What is the ecological relevance of physiological variance?

A

physiological performance measurements should be “whole animal” measurements that correlate with fitness

190
Q

What are examples of physiological performance correlating with fitness?

A

growth rates, digestive efficiency, predator avoidance, disease resistance, acceleration, metabolic scope, rate of egg production, etc.

191
Q

Most physiological systems are maximized at what?

A

intermediate body temperatures (thermal sensitivity)

192
Q

What are three descriptive measures of thermal sensitivity?

A

1) thermal Optimum (Topt)
2) thermal performance breadth (TPB)
3) tolerance range

193
Q

Thermal Optimum

A

temperature at which performance is maximized

194
Q

Thermal performance breadth

A

range of temps over which performance is some % of maximum

195
Q

Tolerance Range

A

temperatures beyond which physiological function ceases at (CT min and CT max)

196
Q

Ecological decline occurs at what compared to acute stress?

A

milder temperatures

197
Q

Why are animals impaired at temperatures with the pejus range?

A

oxygen and capacity limitation of thermal tolerance

198
Q

Why does temperature matter to organisms?

A

1) affects rate of tissue processes
2) affects the molecular conformation & thus, the functional state of molecules
3) Enzyme substrate affinity & temperature (thermal adaption) affinity decreases as temperature increases
4) Homeoviscous adaptation

199
Q

Temperature varies both what?

A

spatially & temporally

200
Q

Tolerance to high temperatures is measured using what?

A

CT max & LD50

201
Q

LD50

A

maintain animals at various constant temperatures; body temperature @ which 50% of animals die

202
Q

CTmax

A

subject animals to slowly increasing temperatures; body temperature when animals are incapable of removing themselves from the situation

203
Q

thermal sensitivity allows what?

A

predictions of performance with spatial and temporal variation in temperature

204
Q

Animal max temp

A

50C

205
Q

plant max temp

A

75C

206
Q

bacterial max temp

A

1000C

207
Q

Highest terrestrial animal temperature

A

desert ant; higher than 45C

208
Q

Species differences are reflect in aspects of what? e.g.?

A

ecology; e.g. latitude, habitat selection

209
Q

Some terrestrial animals normally live close to what?

A

their CTM

210
Q

Aquatic/marine animals generally have what?

A

lower maximal lethal temperature

211
Q

Often CTmax is tightly correlated with what?

A

breakdown of critical physiological processes

212
Q

What is reduced at higher temperatures?

A

O2 binding affinity

213
Q

What is a cause of death at high body temperatures?

A

Insufficient oxygen (hypoxia)

214
Q

Hypoxia

A

high temperatures cause mismatch between oxygen demand and oxygen supply

215
Q

Hypoxia leads to what?

A

1) reliance on anaerobic pathway
2) depletion or accumulation of secondary metabolites
3) protein inactivation

216
Q

First defense to high, non-lethal temperatures is what?

A

behavioral

217
Q

what is the molecular response to high temperatures?

A

Heat-shock proteins (hsps)

218
Q

Heat shock proteins

A

molecular chaperones: facilitate successful folding, assembly, and secretion of proteins

219
Q

Hsps in animals cells can help prevent what?

A

stress-induced denaturation

220
Q

Hsps are induced by what?

A

acute non-lethal temperatures

221
Q

downsides to Hsps?

A

energetically expensive & have detrimental effects

222
Q

There is a fitness cost to having high levels of functional hsps during what?

A

low heat stress

223
Q

The ability to induce hsps is advantageous during what?

A

moderate to high heat stress

224
Q

Shallow terrestrial anurans are what?

A

freeze tolerant

225
Q

Terrestrial burrowers or aquatic anurans are what?

A

not freeze tolerant

226
Q

Supercooling point

A

process of cooling a liquid or gas below its freezing point without it becoming solid

227
Q

What percentage of total body water as ice can an anuran tolerate?

A

65-70%

228
Q

What aspects of anurans helps them be freeze tolerant?

A

Low molecular weight carbohydrates (glucose & glycerol) which function as anti-freeze & cryoprotectants

229
Q

Liver glycogen is a source of what?

A

glucose

230
Q

Chorus frogs accumulated what while the toads did not?

A

glucose

231
Q

glucose accumulation is associated with what?

A

higher liver phosphorylase activity in frogs

232
Q

development of freezing tolerance likely associated with increase in what?

A

glycogen phosphorylase activity

233
Q

Endotherms problem in the cold?

A

Favorable conditions in summer, but deteriorates in winter

234
Q

birds respond to the cold in what two ways?

A

1) migration
2) permanent residency

235
Q

what are the three types of adjustments?

A

physical, physiological, behavioral

236
Q

Physical adjustments

A

feathers, subcutaneous fat, regional hypothermia & peripheral circulation

237
Q

peripheral vasoconstriction

A

shunts blood away from body surface

238
Q

countercurrent heat exchange

A

closely opposed vessels allow heat exchange to keep warm blood near core

239
Q

Changes in what can lead to increase heat loss?

A

peripheral circulation

240
Q

Some birds increase what in winter?

A

BMR

241
Q

Increased BMR likely associated with what?

A

cost of maintaining metabolic machinery

242
Q

Summit MR correlated with shivering endurance provides what?

A

higher total capacity for heat production

243
Q

Shivering increases what?

A

thermogenic capacity

244
Q

What are the two options that increase Msum in winter?

A

1) enhanced fat catabolism capacities
2) bigger muscles for shivering

245
Q

citrate synthase

A

important enzyme in cellular respiration

246
Q

increased citrate synthase activity increases what?

A

cellular aerobic capacity

247
Q

Fatty acid binding protein (FABP)

A

makes fat available for catabolism

248
Q

Myostatin

A

potent endocrine inhibitor of muscle growth in mammals

249
Q

Msum & cold tolerance what in winter?

A

increases

250
Q

Pectoralis muscle mass what in winter?

A

increases

251
Q

Myostatin and TLL-1 gene expression what in winter?

A

decrease

Fall 2022 (4 decks)

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