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Fall 2022 > Animal Physiology Exam 1 > Flashcards

Animal Physiology Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Animal physiology

A

the integrated study of how biological systems work; integrates multiple disciplines like evolution, chemistry, physics ect…

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2
Q

What are the levels of biological organization? (bottom to top)

A

atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ system, organism

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3
Q

What’s at the core of the anatomical physiological wheel?

A

nervous/endocrine

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4
Q

What surrounds the anatomical physiological wheel (connects everything)?

A

bloodstream

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5
Q

What are the two main questions of animal physiology?

A

(1) What is the mechanism by which a function is accomplished?
(2) What is the origin of that function?

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6
Q

Mechanism

A

components of living organisms that enable animals to perform

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7
Q

Origin

A

The evolutionary processes that conspired to produce a mechanism. The evolutionary significance of mechanisms

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8
Q

What is the key process of evolutionary origin?

A

natural selection

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9
Q

natural selection

A

increase in frequency of genes that increase fitness

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10
Q

adaption

A

traits (or physiological mechanisms) that are products of evolution by natural selection

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11
Q

What are the modes of natural selection?

A

1) directional selection
2) stabilizing selection
3) disruptive selection

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12
Q

Directional selection

A

selection favors 1 extreme of phenotype in a population

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13
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

extremes aren’t viable, so favors the intermediate

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14
Q

Disruptive selection

A

intermediate phenotype is not favored, but the extremes are; two phenotypes have high fitness; bimodal

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15
Q

Individuals don’t experience what in their life-time? What does?

A

evolution; populations

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16
Q

What indicates mode of natural selection?

A

changes in mean and/or standard deviation

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17
Q

Thermal conformity

A

both internal temp and external temp change 1:1

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18
Q

Conformer benefits

A

energy efficient

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19
Q

Conformer costs

A

death & limited viable habitats

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20
Q

Regulators

A

able to maintain internal conditions despite change in external conditions

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21
Q

Regulators benefits

A

can inhabit many places

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22
Q

Regulators costs

A

takes a lot of energy

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23
Q

Claude Bernard

A
  • Physiological regulation implies that function occurs best over a specified range of conditions
  • 1st to recognize the stability of conditions humans maintain in their blood
  • studied blood glucose
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24
Q

Walter Cannon

A
  • “internal constancy”
  • regulatory mechanisms exist to maintain internal stability
  • AKA homeostasis
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25
Q

What were Walter Cannons three postulates?

A

1) Nervous system preserves the normal conditioning of the body
2) Tonic activity (continuous) of a system can be modulated up & down
3) There are factors that have opposing effects = antagonistic controls

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26
Q

Hormone

A

endocrine system

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27
Q

Nerves

A

nervous system

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28
Q

Hormones & nerves are apart of what?

A

long-distance response loop

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29
Q

Negative feedback loop

A

An upstream product or signal of a pathway inhibits an earlier step in that same pathway

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30
Q

Positive feedback

A

an upstream stimulus amplifies an initial response
e.g. Oxytocin & birth

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31
Q

Physiological timescales

A

timeframes in which physiology changes

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32
Q

Responses to external environment

A

Acute, chronic, evolutionary

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33
Q

Changes in individuals

A

acute, chronic

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34
Q

Changes in populations

A

evolutionary

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35
Q

Chronic

A

phenotypic plasticity (acclimation); usually reversible; On a graph = elevation on the y-axis (differences between two lines)

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36
Q

Acute response on a graph

A

the slope

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37
Q

Evolutionary

A
  • changes in populations & across generations
  • adaptation
  • irreversible change in genotype & phenotype
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38
Q

Physical properties are linked to what?

A

function

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39
Q

Chemical laws govern what?

A

molecular interactions

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40
Q

Electrical laws describe what?

A

membrane function

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41
Q

Body size influences what?

A

biochemical and physical patterns

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42
Q

Many traits scale in a systematic way with what?

A

body size
e.g. bigger animal = longer gestation

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43
Q

Isometric growth

A
  • proportions remain constant
  • each dimension is scaled up or down by same amount
  • grow 1:1 fashion
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44
Q

Allometric growth

A
  • changes in body proportions with changes in body size
  • different rates of growth of different parts
  • The proportions vary depending on the rates at which SA, Volume, & other physical parameters change with size
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45
Q

Size impacts what?

A

SA:V, thermoregulation, respiration, bone & muscle structure, water balance

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46
Q

As size gets bigger, the SA:V ratio what?

A

decreases

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47
Q

Higher SA:V ratio means what?

A

exchange occurs quickly compared to small SA:V

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48
Q

What constrains organisms to certain environments?

A

SA:V

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49
Q

What is the allometric equation?

A

Y = aX^b

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50
Q

What tells us if its isometric or allometric growth?

A

b = scaling exponent

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51
Q

If b = 1

A

isometric

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52
Q

If b < 1

A

negative allometry (less than isometric expectation)

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53
Q

If b > 1

A

positive allometry (more than isometric expectation)

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54
Q

The scaling exponent (b) is only true when what?

A

comparing like dimensions
e.g. length to length

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55
Q

Isometry of head length vs body length

A

m1/m1, so b = 1/1 = 1

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56
Q

Isometry of head length vs body mass

A

m1/m3, so b = 1/3 = .33

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57
Q

Isometry of surface area vs body mass

A

m2/m3, so b = 2/3 = .67

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58
Q

scaling

A

the structural and functional consequences of changes in size of otherwise similar organisms

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59
Q

As SA increases, volume increases by what?

A

2/3 of SA (i.e. volume increases less rapidly)

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60
Q

Smaller objects have what relative to their volumes compared to larger objects?

A

larger SA

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61
Q

Volume increase more rapidly than does SA, so what?

A

SA:V decreases

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62
Q

Small differences on a log-log plot translate into what?

A

large differences when plotted arithmetically

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63
Q

By plotting on a log-scale, we can assess what 2 important aspects of the scaling relationship?

A

1) slope (b) = rate of change in trait relative to body size
2) proportionality coefficient (a) = y-intercept

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64
Q

An order of magnitude increase on the arithmetic scale represents what?

A

an increase of one unit on the log-scale

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65
Q

Kleiber’s law

A

metabolic rate scales to the 3/4 power of body mass; varies with scale of study (individual vs across species)

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66
Q

What systems integrate and coordinate all other functional systems?

A

Nervous & endocrine

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67
Q

Basic unit of the Nervous system?

A

Neuron

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68
Q

Nerves are bundles of what?

A

neuron axons

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69
Q

Neurons and their support (glial) cells make up what?

A

Nervous system

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70
Q

How is information sent over long distances in the body?

A

Neurons and Endocrine cell

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71
Q

How does a neuron work?

A

signal - action potential along axon - release chemical (NT) into synaptic cleft/gap - NT binds receptors -response

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72
Q

How do endocrine cells work?

A

Synthesizes and secretes chemicals (hormones) into the bloodstream - travels to target - response

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73
Q

Response loop

A

stimulus - receptor - afferent pathway (sensory) - integrating center (CNS) - efferent pathway (motor) - effector - response

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74
Q

Functional classes of neurons

A

sensory (afferent) neurons, interneurons, motor (efferent) neurons

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75
Q

Neuroglia

A

glial cells

76
Q

Neuroglia (glial cells) do what?

A

protect neurons & help them function
- insulate neurons from one another
- supportive framework
- involved in impulse transmission (communication)

77
Q

What are the types of glial cells? Their locations?

A

CNS: oligodendrocytes, astrocytes
PNS: schwann cells

78
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  • CNS
  • forms myelin sheath around axons
  • insulates nerve fibers from extracellular fluid
  • speeds up signal conduction
79
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • CNS
  • most abundant glial cells
  • supportive framework for nervous tissue
  • regulate blood flow in brain
  • regulate nerve growth
80
Q

Schwann cells

A
  • PNS
  • surround axons of neurons (myelin sheath)
  • entire cell wraps around axon - not just arms
81
Q

Excitable cells

A

can change membrane potential

82
Q

Resting membrane potential (RMP)

A
  • about -70mV
  • the “unexcited” state
  • differs in voltage across the membrane
  • membrane potentials first demonstrated in axons of the giant squid
83
Q

Voltage

A

difference in charge

84
Q

voltmeter

A

measures voltage

85
Q

Reference electrode of the voltmeter is always what?

A

in extracellular fluid

86
Q

What generates membrane potential?

A

selective permeability to ions

87
Q

The intracellular fluid has what in respect to ion concentration?

A

High: K+ & A-
Low: Na+ & Cl-

88
Q

The extracellular fluid has what in respect to ion concentration?

A

High: Na+ & Cl-
Low: K+ & A-

89
Q

A- is what?

A

non-permeable anions

90
Q

What helps maintain the concentrations of major ions?

A

active transport
e.g. Na+/K+ ATPase pump

91
Q

What generates resting membrane potential?

A

1) Na+/K+ gradients
2) differential permeability (K+ moves faster)
3) Na-K ATPase pump moves ions against their gradients

92
Q

Voltage declines with what?

A

distance

93
Q

Why does voltage decline with distance?

A

leaky channels get rid of Na+

94
Q

What are the changes in Vm in response to a stimulus?

A

RMP - depolarization - repolarization - hyperpolarization - RMP

95
Q

Graded potentials

A
  • local potentials
  • provided by stimulus on dendrites or cell body
  • amplitude proportional to stimulus strength
96
Q

What determines whether a graded potential is weak or strong?

A

1) # of ion channels
2) distance current spreads
3) Threshold

97
Q

Excitatory electrical charge

A

stimulus opens Na+ channels (depolarization)

98
Q

Inhibitory electrical charge

A

stimulus opens Cl- (influx) or K+ (efflux) channels (hyperpolarization)

99
Q

Action potentials

A

1) all or none
2) produced by graded potentials
3) always excitatory (depolarization)
4) propagates over long distances without decreasing in amplitude

100
Q

What opens at threshold?

A

Voltage Na channels open

101
Q

What opens at the peak of an action potential? what closes?

A

Open: K+ channels
Close: Na+ channels

102
Q

What about K+ channels makes an action potential possible?

A

K+ channels are slow to open (why depolarization); they are also slow to close (why hyperpolarization)

103
Q

What are the refractory period phases?

A

absolute & relative

104
Q

absolute refractory phase

A

No action potential can be produced

105
Q

relative refractory phase

A

Action potential can be produced but not “easily”

106
Q

Conduction velocity depends on what?

A

axon diameter, myelination, temperature

107
Q

Myelinated axons conduct what?

A

faster

108
Q

Warmer neurons conduct what?

A

faster

109
Q

Axons with increased diameters conduct what?

A

faster

110
Q

Myelin sheath does what?

A

prevents ion leakage maintaining an action potential more efficiently

111
Q

Synaptic transmission can be what? or what?

A

electric or chemical

112
Q

Electrical synapse

A
  • very rapid response
  • electrical coupling of cells joined by gap junction
113
Q

Chemical synapse

A
  • takes longer
  • must release a secondary messenger
114
Q

Ionotropic receptor

A
  • single molecule constitutes both the receptor and ion channel
  • the receptor directly alters permeability to ions in post-synaptic cell
115
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A
  • trigger a signaling cascade of secondary messengers
  • has a relatively slow, long lasting effects on synaptic processes
116
Q

Excitatory post-synaptic potential

A

causes depolarization and repolarization

117
Q

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential

A

causes hyperpolarization (makes AP generation harder)

118
Q

Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)

A
  • Na+ channels open (depolarization)
  • NT = Ach or glutamate
119
Q

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)

A
  • Cl (influx) or K+ (efflux) channels open (hyperpolarization)
  • NT = Gaba or glycine
120
Q

What limits the graded potentials?

A

number of receptors & amount of NT released

121
Q

EPSP summation

A

adding up post-synaptic potentials & responding to their net effect

122
Q

Temporal summation

A

sends action potentials at high frequency; they add up and result in a new action potential

123
Q

Spatial summation

A

involves more than 1 pre-synaptic cell interacting with one post-synaptic cell

124
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers released by a nerve signal into synaptic cleft that bind to receptor on another cell & alters that cells physiology

125
Q

Neurotransmitter categories

A

1) amines
2) amino acids
3) neuropeptides

126
Q

Amines

A
  • e.g. Ach, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine
127
Q

Acetylcholine (Ach)

A
  • found in neuromuscular junctions and most synapses of the autonomic nervous system
  • Excites skeletal muscle - EPSP (ionotropic)
  • inhibits cardiac muscle - IPSP (metabotropic)
128
Q

Amino acids

A

e.g. GABA, glutamate, glycine

129
Q

GABA

A

IPSP (ionotropic)

130
Q

Glutamate

A

EPSP (ionotropic)

131
Q

Glycine

A

IPSP (ionotropic)

132
Q

Neuropeptides

A

small chains of AA; Metabotropic

133
Q

What works together (antagonistically) to control overall level of brain excitation?

A

GABA (IPSP) & Glutamate (EPSP)

134
Q

An imbalance of GABA & Glutamate can be found where?

A

autism spectrum & anxiety disorders

135
Q

Alcohol potentiates sedentary effects of what?

A

GABA
- increases GABA/glutamate ratio
- Sensations of relaxation and, at later stages, loss of control

136
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

synaptic properties change with time and activity

137
Q

Presynaptic synaptic plasticity

A

changing rate of NT synthesis, storage, and release

138
Q

Postsynaptic synaptic plasticity

A

sensitivity to NT can be increased or decreased under different circumstances

139
Q

synaptic plasticity is thought to be a mechanism of what?

A

how neurons system function changes over time
- memory & learning

140
Q

Synaptic potentials are what?

A

short-lived

141
Q

Synaptic strength

A

amplitude of postsynaptic potential in response to pre-synaptic action potential

142
Q

Facilitation “sensitive”

A

successive PSPs increase in amplitude in response to repeated pre-synaptic action potentials

143
Q

Anti-facilitation

A

successive PSPs in a series decrease in amplitude

144
Q

Facilitation is pronounced after what?

A

Tetonic stimulation of pre-synaptic neurons

145
Q

posttetanic potentiation

A

extended enhancement of synaptic response

146
Q

What regions of the brain are associated with memory & learning?

A

hippocampus & cerebral cortex

147
Q

Habituation

A

decrease in intensity of reflex response to stimulus

148
Q

Sensitation

A

prolonged enhancement of reflex response to stimulus

149
Q

long-term potentiation in hippocampus

A

tetonic stimulation - long-term potentiation
- more channels = greater response

150
Q

Chemical signals act over what in the body?

A

short & long distances

151
Q

Types of signals in the body that travel short and long distances

A
  • neuron: pre-synaptic to post-synaptic
  • non-neural endocrine cell
  • neurosecretory cell
  • local paracrine & autocrine signals
152
Q

What are the three chemical classes of hormone?

A

1) steroid hormones
2) peptide (protein) hormones
3) amine hormones

153
Q

Steroid hormones

A
  • synthesized from cholesterol
  • sex hormones, stress hormone/metabolic hormones
  • secreted by gonads, adrenal cortex, skin & placenta
  • In anthropods: molting hormones
  • lipid soluble
  • receptors located inside target cells
154
Q

Peptide hormones

A
  • structured from chains of amino acids
  • in verts: antidiuretic hormone, insulin & growth hormone
  • In inverts: gamete-shedding hormone (sea stars), diuretic hormone (insects)
  • vary enormously in molecular size
  • water soluble
  • receptors located on surface of target cell
155
Q

Amine hormones

A
  • modified amino acids
  • catecholamines (Tyrosin derivative): NE, epi, dopamine
  • Iodothyronines (Tyrosin derivative): T3, T4 = thyroid hormones
  • Melatonin (Tryptophan derivative)
  • Melatonin and catecholamines = water soluble
  • Iodothyronines = lipid soluble
156
Q

Hormones produce what?

A

biochemical changes in target cells

157
Q

What are the 3 receptor types that mediate hormone action?

A

1) intracellular receptors
2) G-protein coupled membrane receptors
3) enzyme linked membrane receptors

158
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones bind to what?

A

intracellular receptors

159
Q

Lipid soluble hormones and their receptors act as what?

A

transcription factors

160
Q

Steroids & Iodothyronines (lipid soluble hormones) do what?

A

interact directly with a cell’s DNA to alter gene expression
- directly influences protein synthesis of target cell
- process takes time

161
Q

Water-soluble hormones (peptides & catecholamines) bind to what?

A

membrane receptors

162
Q

Water-soluble hormones do what?

A

mediate hormone action by changing membrane permeability or by activating secondary messengers via G-proteins

163
Q

What are the 2 major controls of hormone secretion?

A

1) neuron control of secretion by neurosecretory cells
2) neurosecretory control of secretion by endocrine cells

164
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

endocrine tissue; non-neural endocrine cell

165
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

continues with hypothalamus (nervous tissue); neurosecretory cell

166
Q

In mammals, what two hormones are released in the posterior pituitary gland?

A

oxytocin, vasopressin

167
Q

Anterior pituitary and neurosecretory control of secretion by what?

A

endocrine cells

168
Q

What are the two groups hormones are categorized into?

A

1) influence non-endocrine tissues
2) influence endocrine tissues (tropins) = tropic hormones

169
Q

Hypothalamus-anterior pituitary-thyroid axis

A

TRH - TSH - thyroid hormone

170
Q

HPA

A

Hypothalamus- pituitary- adrenal cortex

171
Q

Glucocorticoids

A
  • steroid hormones
  • secreted by adrenal cortex
  • cortisone, cortisol, corticosterone
172
Q

What activates the release of glucocorticoids?

A

stressful or challenging conditions

173
Q

What allows a generalized response to challenging/stressful conditions?

A

adaptation

174
Q

Stressors

A

wounding, thermal extremes, forced vigorous exercise, social conditions

175
Q

What occurs during early phases of stress response?

A
  • low levels of catecholamines and CORT
  • immune function enhanced
  • immune response often causes inflammation
176
Q

What occurs at higher concentration of CORT?

A
  • has anti-inflammatory effects
  • helps keep immune system in check
177
Q

What can chronic stress cause?

A
  • catabolic actions can cause muscle wasting & bone thinning
  • suppression of immune system - increased susceptibility to infections & disease
  • suppresses reproductive functions
  • permanent alteration of GC receptors in brain (PTSD)
178
Q

Because glucocorticoids are involved in the stress response, baseline levels of what have been used as an index of stress?

A

circulating CORT

179
Q

Core of the CORT-fitness hypothesis

A

higher baseline levels of CORT interpreted as an individual or population in worse condition (lower relative fitness) than those with lower levels of CORT

180
Q

Provisioning what is more stressful and requires more energy?

A

more or larger babies

181
Q

What are the 2 central ideas of the cort-fitness hypothesis?

A

1) Baseline cort increases with increasinnng environmental challenge (stress)
2) Fitness should decline with increasing environmental stress

182
Q

Density triggers what that increases adaptive offspring growth in a wild mammal?

A

maternal hormones

183
Q

Early stress can what?

A

re-program the HPA axis and alter the efficacy of the stress feedback loop (less efficient)

184
Q

Alteration of gene expression

A

epigenetics

185
Q

What is a common observed neuroendocrine symptom of depression?

A

dysregulation of the HPA axis

Fall 2022 (4 decks)

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