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Fall 2022 > Animal Physiology Exam 2 > Flashcards

Animal Physiology Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG)

A

responsible for regulation of the reproductive (sex hormones) and immune systems

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2
Q

The hypothalamus secretes what?

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

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3
Q

GnRH stimulates what?

A

Anterior pituitary to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) & follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

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4
Q

LH and FSH act on what?

A

testes and ovaries to release testosterone (or estrogen)

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5
Q

Estrogen

A

in females, it promotes development and maintenance of female characteristics and behavior, oocyte maturation, uterine proliferation; stimulated by FSH & LH

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6
Q

Testosterone

A

In males, promotes development and maintenance of male characteristics, behavior, and spermatogenesis; stimulated by LH

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7
Q

What is the ecological relevance of testosterone?

A
  • influences development of male secondary characteristics (crests, throat fans, color)
  • related to aggression
  • may both stimulate & retard growth
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8
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

morphological differences between male and females
- e.g. male cuban anole lizards are larger than females because of faster growth rates
- growth rates largely determined by circulating levels of testosterone

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9
Q

Testosterone influences what?

A

aggressive behavior & competition among males for mates, thus, testosterone may be involved in sexual selection may influence mate choice (more blue)

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10
Q

Maternal provisioning of yolk testosterone influences what?

A

phenotypes of both males and female offspring that may influence fitness

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11
Q

What is correlated with testosterone levels in spiny lizards?

A

Mite parasitism; fitness cost of testosterone

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12
Q

Immunocompetence handicap hypothesis

A

increased levels of circulating testosterone cause an increase susceptibility to infection (reduced immune system)

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13
Q

What fitness benefits and costs does testosterone provide?

A

benefits: increased endurance, movement, and home range area
Cost: decreased growth rate & survival + increased parasitism

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14
Q

Muscle functions

A

locomotion, repositioning, internal movement, organism shape & form, support, protection, heat production

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15
Q

Type of muscle cells

A

cardiac, smooth, skeletal

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16
Q

which muscle cells are striated?

A

cardiac & skeletal

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17
Q

Which muscle cells are voluntary? Involuntary?

A

Voluntary: skeletal
Involuntary: smooth & cardiac

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18
Q

Skeletal muscle

A
  • bundles of fibers
  • attaches via connective tissue to bone
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19
Q

antagonistic muscle groups

A

muscles that cause opposing movements
e.g. bicep & tricep

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20
Q

Muscle organization

A

muscle - fiber bundles - fibers (cell) - myofibrils - sarcomere - actin (thin) + myosin (thick)

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21
Q

Muscle contraction produced by what?

A

Sliding filaments
1) myosin heads pull on thin filaments
2) Sarcomere unit shortens

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22
Q

Molecular interactions underlying muscle contraction (steps)

A

1) rigor conformation
2) breaking the cross-bridge: ATP binds & myosin releases actin
3) Hydrolyzing the ATP causes the angle of the myosin head to change
4) and Myosin head binds actin
5) Power stroke: fueled by phosphate leaving
6) Myosin unbinds ADP & remains bound to actin (rigor)

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23
Q

Thin filament

A

Actin: binding site for myosin

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24
Q

What are the regulatory proteins of actin (thin)?

A

tropomyosin & troponin

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25
Q

Relaxed muscle state versus contracted

A

relaxed: No Ca2+ present in cytoplasm
contracted: Ca2+ present

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26
Q

Calcium regulation of muscles

A

1) Ca2+ binds troponin
2) tropomyosin moves, exposing myosin binding sites
3) myosin head binds & makes power stroke
4) thin filament is moved

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27
Q

What triggers calcium release?

A

Excitation-contraction coupling

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28
Q

Excitation-contraction coupling steps

A

1) action potential: releases ACh
2) ACh binds ligand gated Na+ channels, Na+ enters = AP
3) AP depolarizes T-tubule: triggers voltage sensitive DHPR conformation change
4) Ryr Ca2+ channel opens & Ca2+ diffuses into cytoplasm
5) Ca2+ can now bind troponin and move tropomyosin
6) ACh is degraded: stops AP

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29
Q

How does Ca2+ get removed from the cytoplasm?

A

ATP-dependent Ca2+ pumps

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30
Q

Muscle twitch

A

mechanical response to action potential

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31
Q

Isometric twitch response

A

same length; tension developed is NOT sufficient to move load and muscle stays the same length

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32
Q

Isotonic

A

same tension; tension developed IS sufficient to move load & muscle shortens

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33
Q

what determines the tension by muscle?

A

frequency of action potentials

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34
Q

Summation

A

Action potentials in rapid succession (leads to twitches)

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35
Q

very high frequency stimulation produces what?

A

Tetanus = “fused” contraction

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36
Q

Muscular work depends on what?

A

ATP

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37
Q

ATP functions in muscle

A

1) binds myosin head: release actin
2) ATP hydrolysis: activates myosin cross-bridge
3) ATP hydrolysis: Ca2+ pumped into SR

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38
Q

How is ATP generated?

A

1) creatine phosphate
2) glycolysis
3) oxidative phosphorylation

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39
Q

Most ATP generated in a short-duration

A

Anaerobic glycolysis with phosphagen

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40
Q

All ATP is made by what in long-duration events?

A

catabolism

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41
Q

Tonic muscle fibers

A
  • don’t generate action potentials
  • slow cross-bridge cycling = long, sustained contraction with low energy cost
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42
Q

Twitch muscle fibers

A
  • generate action potentials
  • most common
  • 2 main categories: slow oxidative & fast glycolytic
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43
Q

slow oxidative fibers (twitch)

A
  • contract slow
  • fueled by oxidative metabolism
  • lots of aerobic enzymes
  • lots of mitochondria and myoglobin: makes fiber more resistant to fatigue
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44
Q

fast glycolytic (twitch)

A
  • contract quick
  • powerful
  • fueled by glycolysis
  • lots of glycolytic enzymes
  • low mitochondria volume
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45
Q

motor unit

A

motor neuron + all skeletal muscle it stimulates

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46
Q

each axon branches innervate what?

A

multiple muscle fibers

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47
Q

each fiber receives synaptic input from what?

A

one motor neuron

48
Q

when motor neuron fires action potential

A

all muscle fibers in the motor unit contract

49
Q

Recruitment

A

increased muscle contraction force by increased number of active motor units

50
Q

muscle force proportional to what?

A

cross-sectional area

51
Q

Transport of gases =

A

passive

52
Q

For O2 to move from environment into cells, conditions must be what?

A

favorable for passive transport

53
Q

What are respiratory gases?

A

O2 & CO2
- principal gases consumed and produced by cellular respiration

54
Q

Dalton’s law

A

total pressure exerted by mix of gases = sum of pressures of individual gases

PV = nRT

55
Q

Partial pressure

A

individual pressure exerted by any particular gas in a gas mix

Px = Fx x Ptot

56
Q

Diffusion of gases dependent on what?

A

variation in partial pressures

57
Q

Partial pressures of a gas is proportional to what?

A

the concentration of that gas in gas phase

58
Q

Atmospheric pressure what with altitude?

A

decreases

59
Q

Henry’s law

A

Gases dissolve in liquids in proportion to their partial pressures

Cx = A x Px

60
Q

Henry’s law depends on what?

A
  • solubility in specific fluids
  • temperature
  • presence of other solutes (salinity)
61
Q

Gases diffuse from what?

A

High Px to low Px

62
Q

solubility what with increasing temperature?

A

decreases

63
Q

solubility what with increasing salinity?

A

decreases

64
Q

gases diffuse more readily through what than what?

A

air than water

65
Q

Respiration via diffusion alone only possible at what?

A

<1mm distance

66
Q

Gas transport is enhanced by what?

A

convective movement (bulk)
- unidirectional flow
- tidal flow

67
Q

oxygen cascade of people

A

ambient air - alveolar gas - arterial blood - capillary blood - mitochondria

68
Q

Solubility of Oxygen in blood =

A

low

69
Q

What increases O2 carrying capacity by 50x?

A

metalloproteins

70
Q

3 types of respiratory pigments

A

1) hemocyanins (copper)
2) hemerythins (iron)
3) hemoglobin

71
Q

Hemocyanins

A
  • copper
  • anthropods & molluscs
  • dissolved in hemolymph
  • blue when oxygenated
72
Q

Hemerythins

A
  • iron
  • brachiopods, annelids
  • inside coelomic cells
  • violet pink when oxygenated
73
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • most common
  • verts, nematodes, annelids, insects, crustaceans
  • globin bound to heme (Fe)
  • carried by RBCs
  • red = oxygenated
74
Q

Fetal hemoglobin

A

alpha-globin & gamma-globin

75
Q

Adult hemoglobin

A

alpha-globin & beta-globin

76
Q

Mammals Hb

A

fairly uniform in composition

77
Q

Ectotherms Hb

A

mixes of 2,3, up to 10 different forms of Hb

78
Q

O2 equilibrium curve

A

functional relationship between percent of binding sites oxygenated & partial pressure of O2

79
Q

As PO2 drops, less & less of what is required to cause the same unloading of O2?

A

drop in partial pressure

80
Q

myoglobin

A
  • no cooperativity
  • 1 binding site
  • function independently
81
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • cooperativity
  • partially bound Hb = increased oxygen affinity
  • 4 O2 binding sites/ molecule
82
Q

cooperativity enhances what?

A

responsiveness of the process to changing PO2

83
Q

No cooperativity =

A

low PO2 pressure necessary to release 80% of O2

84
Q

Cooperativity =

A

unloads 80% of its O2 at much higher O2 partial pressure

85
Q

O2 equilibrium curve Shape reflects what?

A

a trade-off between loading & unloading O2

86
Q

O2 equilibrium curve height shows what?

A

how readily pigment binds to O2

87
Q

High O2 affinity =

A

loads more easily = shift LEFT

88
Q

low O2 affinity =

A

unloads more easily = shift RIGHT

89
Q

Bohr shift

A

a right-shift in the normal curve due to decreased pH & an associated increase in CO2

90
Q

decreased pH means shift

A

right

91
Q

increased PCO2 means shift

A

right

92
Q

Bohr effect typically what?

A

enhances O2 delivery

93
Q

increased temperature does what to O2 affinity?

A

decreases O2 affinity; shift RIGHT

94
Q

increasing temperatures promotes what?

A

O2 delivery during exercise

95
Q

Specialized breathing structures

A

1) gills (external & internal)
2) lungs
3) cutaneous
4) tracheae

96
Q

Respiratory surfaces must be what?

A

ventilated
- reduces static boundary layers

97
Q

Passive ventilation

A

nondirectional

98
Q

Active ventilation

A
  • tidal
  • unidirectional
  • nondirectional
99
Q

Tidal gas exchange

A

1) fresh medium mixes with stale medium in the lung, so the PO2 of the medium @ the exchange surface with the blood is below that in the environment

2) O2 diffuses into the blood flowing along the exchange surface. The PO2 in the blood rises

3) The PO2 in blood leaving the lung remains lower than that in the exhaled medium

100
Q

Countercurrent gas exchange is more efficient than what?

A

cocurrent gas exchange & Cross-current gas exchange

101
Q

Area of gas exchange increases with what?

A

increasing body size

102
Q

Thickness of gas-exchange is relatively constant with what?

A

increasing body size

103
Q

Challenges to breathing in water

A
  • H2O 1000 times denser than air
  • H2O has 100 times greater viscosity
  • solubility of O2 in water is 30x lower than in air
104
Q

Advantages to breathing in water

A
  • easier to eliminate CO2
  • air breathing causes dehydration
105
Q

Bucal-opercular pumping steps

A

1) buccal cavity (mouth) refilling causes buccal expansion, reducing the pressure, which draws in water.
2) Operculum draws water across gills
3) buccal pressure forces additional water across gills into opercular cavity
4) relaxation phase prior to next ventilation cycle

106
Q

Ram ventilation

A

when swimming at 50-80 cm/s or greater, some fish simply open their mouth to ventilate gills

107
Q

reliance on air increases as what?

A

dissolved O2 in habit decreases

108
Q

Amphibians have what?

A

paired, unicameral lungs

109
Q

How do amphibians ventilate?

A

buccopharyngeal pressure

110
Q

simplest lung is

A

unicameral

111
Q

Inhalation = what in snakes & what in lizards?

A

elastic expansion in snakes, intercostal ctx in lizards

112
Q

Exhalation = what in snakes & what in lizards?

A

muscular compression in snakes, elastic relaxation in lizards

113
Q

Upper respiratory tract

A

mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea

114
Q

Lower respiratory tract

A

bronchi & lungs

115
Q

Airways of the lungs

A

bronchioles & alveoli

116
Q

Alveoli are what?

A

sites of gas exchange

117
Q

The airways of human lungs

A
  • tidal ventilation
  • highly vascularized
  • High SA
  • low diffusion distances

Fall 2022 (4 decks)

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