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Animal Nutrition > Animal Phys final new > Flashcards

Animal Phys final new Flashcards

1
Q

What are the key functions of the respiratory system?

A

Gas exchange, regulation of pH of body fluids, temp control, voice production

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2
Q

What are the 2 key respiratory gases?

A

O2 and CO2

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3
Q

What is partial pressure?

A

The amount of pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture

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4
Q

What is a gas exchange membrane? How do gases get to the exchange membrane? How do they cross it?

A

Gas exchange membrane-layer of tissue that separates the internal tissues from the external environment. Gases reach the membrane by CONVECTION TRANSPORT (ventilation and circulation) and cross the membrane by DIFFUSION

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5
Q

What factors control the rate of gas diffusion?

A 
High partial pressure to low patial pressure. Affected by
 –membrane surface area
-difference in partial pressures
-membrane thickness
-gas, temp, phase, membrane permeability
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6
Q

List the parts of the respiratory system

A
  • Nasal passages
  • pharynx
  • larynx
  • trachea
  • bronchi
  • bronchioles
  • alveoli
  • intercostal muscles
  • diaphragm
  • pulmonary artery
  • pulmonary vein
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7
Q

What are the major muscle groups involved in breathing in mammals?

A

external intercostal

  • internal intercostal
  • diaphragm
  • abdominal muscles.
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8
Q

What are the different roles of the larynx?

A

Regulate air flow

  • expel foreign objects
  • contains the vocal cords
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9
Q

What is the difference between conducting and respiratory airways?

A

Conducting-passages that bring air to/from exchange surfaces (no exchange) (thicker membranes, lower surface area, poor blood supply)

Respiratory-where gas exchange occurs high surface area and good blood supply

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10
Q

What some structural similarities and differences between avian and mammalian respiratory systems?

A

Gas exchange occurs in the parabronchi of birds

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11
Q

What is the role of the avian air sacs?

A

They help move air through the parabronchi (because birds don’t have a diaphragm)

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12
Q
  1. Explain the muscular processes involved with inspiration and how these processes lead to air being drawn into the lungs in mammals.
A

Requires coordinated muscle contraction by the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm. Rib cage pulled up and out. Diaphragm descends to create a vacuum. Lung volume expands and air is pulled into airways

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13
Q

Explain the processes of expiration in mammals. How (and when) are muscles involved in expiration in mammals?

A

Muscle relaxation/elastic recoil. Neurons of inspiration are inhibitied. Muscles relax (rib cage returns to normal). Pressure increases to push air out of alveoli. Forced expiration used internal intercostals and abdominal muscles

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14
Q

Explain the muscular processes involved with inspiration and how these processes lead to air being drawn into the lungs in birds

A

Posterior ribs expand and sternum swings forward and down. Internal intercostal and thoracic muscles are used. Expand thoracic and abdominal cavities to create a vacuum (air sacs expand=inhale)

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15
Q

Explain the muscular processes involved with of expiration in birds and how these processes lead to air leaving the lungs.

A

Contraction by abdominal and external intercostal. Create pressure on the thoracic and abdominal cavities

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16
Q

Why is the composition of air in the alveoli different from that in the atmosphere?

A

Not all stale air is cleared in alveoli

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17
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

amount of air that comes into and out of the lungs during each breath.

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18
Q

What is vital capacity

A

max air that can move into and out of the lungs during breathing.

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19
Q

What is residual volume

A

amount of air that cannot be forcefully expired from the lungs.

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20
Q

What factors determine how much air enters the lungs each minute?

A

Respiratory minute volume (tidal volume, respiratory rate) and alveolar ventilation rate

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21
Q

What areas of the brain are involved with the control of respiratory rate?

A

Normal breathing=autonomic neurons, ventilator neurons in pre-Botzinger complex, other neurons in the medulla and in pons (most is passive aka muscles just relax and specific neurons aren’t required)

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22
Q

Describe air flow through the avian respiratory system during inspiration and expiration.

A

Inspiration-Posterior air sacs fill with fresh air. Anterior air sacs fill with stale air. Parabronchi moves posterior to anterior for gas exchange. NO GAS EXCHANGE IN AIR SACS. Expiration-Air pushed out of air sacs. Fresh air pushed out of air sacs to parabronchi. Stale air from parabronchi and anterial air sacs exhaled via primary bronchi

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23
Q

What factors regulate the respiratory rate in birds?

A

Central nervous system controls the pons and medulla with chemoreceptors for PCO2, PO2, and pH

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24
Q

Describe the structure of hemoglobin

A

Heme+globin (porphyrin group with Fe2+ with a protein chain).

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25
Q

What are the key roles of hemoglobin?

A
  • Increase 02 carrying capacity of blood
  • Assist with the regulation of blood pH
  • CO2 transport through blood
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26
Q

Describe the structure of Blood hemoglobins

A

4 heme+globin molecules.

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27
Q

Describe the structure of Muscle Myoglobins

A

1 heme+globin

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28
Q

What sets of membranes does O2 need to cross to get from the alveoli to bind to the hemoglobin?

A

Alveolar membrane, capillary endothelium, and red blood cell membrane.

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29
Q

What is meant by the term ‘oxygen carrying capacity’?

A

The O2 content of the blood when all hemoglobin is saturated with O2 (dependent on number of red blood cells/amount of Fe)

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30
Q

What is an oxygen dissociation curve and what does it tell us?

A

Oxygen dissociation curve-graphical representation of the relationship between hemoglobin, oxygenation/O2, and partial pressure.

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31
Q

What drives oxygen movement from the blood into the tissues and how does this relate back to the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Oxygen released from the hemoglobin is needed to diffuse across membranes into tissues (therefore less O2 bound to hemoglobin is better)

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32
Q

What are the factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen? For each of these factors explain how they affect the affinity and why. Be able to show how the oxygen dissociation curve will move if changes occur to each of these factors (independently).

A

When PCO2 is higher it decreases affinity.
When pH decreases it decreases affinity.
When temp increases it decreases affinity.
When metabolic byproducts increase it decreases affinity. Myoglobin has greater affinity for O2 at PO2 than blood hemoglobin.
Increased PCO2 and decreased pH cause curve to shift right.
PO2 DICTATES SHAPE OF CURVE BUT DOESN”T HAVE EFFECT ON AFFINITY

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33
Q

Explain how the Bohr Effect helps to ensure efficient oxygen delivery to tissues under normal circumstances

A

Since it shifts the O2 dissociation curve in tissues to the right it encourages efficient O2 loading onto hemoglobin in lungs and then unloading in tissues.
Allows for greatest amount of O2 possible to be delivered to tissues.

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34
Q

What is the primary form of CO2 in the blood?

A

HCO3

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35
Q

Why is blood buffering important in ensuring that the blood can carry maximum amounts of CO2?

A

We don’t want a drop in blood pH.

HCO3 neutralizes H ions allowing more HCO3 to be carried in blood

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36
Q

What are the key buffers in the blood (including the specific parts of the molecules)?

A

Hemoglobin (the terminal amino group of the globin) and plasma proteins (the charged side chains of amino acids)

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37
Q

what forms of CO2 contribute to total blood CO2.

A
  • Dissolved CO2
  • HCO3
  • CO2 in carbamate form
38
Q

How does the Haldane effect work? In what way(s) is it in opposition to the Bohr effect?

A

Opposes bohr effect. The deoxygenation of hemoglobin promotes CO2 uptake and then oxygenation promotes CO2 unloading. It allows efficient removal of CO2 while bohr allows efficient O2 delivery

39
Q

What is the normal blood pH of homeotherms and why is it important to keep this range very tight?

A

Normal pH-7.4.

pH outside of the range will alter protein function (affects protein folding therefore shape)

40
Q

Explain (and give examples) of some of the key roles of circulatory systems.

A

Supply blood to tissues.
Deliver metabolic wastes for excretion.
Initiate urine formation in kidneys.
Thermoregulation of various body parts

41
Q

When blood is centrifuged, what is contained in each of the resulting layers that form?

A

Plasma, buffy coat leukocytes and platelets, erythrocytes

42
Q

What is the myocardium and through what artery is oxygen and nutrients supplied to this area

A

Myocardium-cardiac muscle. Requires constant O2 supply. Blood supplied to muscle fibers via coronary artery.

43
Q

Arterioles play critical roles in providing appropriate amounts of blood to the tissues. Explain how they are involved in controlling blood flow and the factors involved in controlling arteriole constriction/dilation

A

Arterioles-control blood distribution in response to innervation, hormones, and loval mediators.
Smooth muscle controls diameter therefore controlling blood flow to muscles.

44
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

one complete cycle of cardiac contraction and relaxation (heart beat)

45
Q

what are the five phases of the cardiac cycle

A
  • atrial contraction (systole)
  • isovolumetric contraction (ventricular systole)
  • ventricular ejection (ventricular systole)
  • Isovolumetric relaxation (ventricular and atrial diastole)
  • Ventricular filling (ventricular atrial diastole)
46
Q

AV valve is open. Blood pushed from atria to ventricles

A

Atrial contraction

47
Q

heart is contracting but because valves are closed, there is no change in blood volume in the ventricle ; immediately before the ejection phase. Ventricle contracts. AV valve closes. Pressure in aeorta exceeds pressure in ventricles aortic/pulmonary valves are closed

A

Isovolumetric contraction

48
Q

Ventricle is contracting and pressure exceeds that in the aorta/pulmonary artery. Aortic/pulmonary valve opens. Blood leaves ventricle.

A

Ventricular Ejection

49
Q

the heart is no longer contracting, but the A-V valve is still closed (as is the aortic valve) and therefore blood cannot move from the atria into the ventricles; precedes the filling phase. Ventricular contraction ends. Pressure in aorta/pulmonary artery exceeds that of the ventricle. Aortic/pulmonary valve is closed.

A

Isovolumetric relaxation

50
Q

venous blood fills the atria. Pressure in atria exceeds that of ventricles so AV valve opens. Blood flows from atria to ventricle

A

Ventricular filling

51
Q

When we use the terms systole and diastole, what chamber of the heart are we usually referring to?

A

Systole-period of contraction Diastole-period of relaxation. Chamber referreing to left ventricle

52
Q

How does the amount of blood released during the contraction of the left ventricle compare to the amount released from the right ventricle

A

They pump equal amounts of blood

53
Q

Where does the stimulation for the contraction of the heart originate?

A

With electrical impulses in heart muscle (SA node). Nueral and hormonal input regulates heart by influencing depolarization in the SA node

54
Q

Describe the processes involved with the depolarization (and contraction) of the atria and the ventricles (ie. how does depolarization spread from the area where it originates, throughout the entire heart)?

A

Depolarization spreads across to the atria and gets atrial systole by being conducted through AV node and common branch bundles to get across non conductive connective tissue.

55
Q

What factors control heart rate? For each factor identified, explain the manner (ie. increase and decrease) and the mechanism (how they are able to influence heart rate) whereby they affect heart rate (or heart function)

A

Homonal control-epinephrine and norepinephrine increase heart rate. Neural-Sympathetic increase heart rate-parasympathetic decrease heart rate. Intristic-match ventricular output with end diastolic volume

56
Q

Define cardiac output and stroke volume

A

Cardiac output-amount of blood pumped by a ventricle per minute. Stroke Volume-amount of blood pumped from a ventricle with each heart beat.

57
Q

What is the Frank-Starling relation? What effect does end diastolic volume have on stroke volume for the next cardiac cycle?

A

Heart controls how much blood is released (matching ouput to input by increasing end diastolic volume and therefore increasing stroke volume) influenced by substances that increases force of contraction.

58
Q

How does the kidney help to maintain homeostasis?

A

Regulates composition and volume of blood and ECF by controlling water and solute excretion

59
Q

What are the parts of the kidney?

A
  • Cortex
  • Medulla
  • Renal pelvis
60
Q

What are the parts of the nephron? Give a brief overview of the processes that occur in each of these parts

A

Glomeruli, bowman’s capsule and glomerulus

-Proxitubumal and distal convoluted

61
Q

What is primary urine?

A

What ends up in the renal tubules after glomerular filtration

62
Q

What is the order through the kidney?

A
  1. Glomeruli, bowman’s capsule to glomerulus to Proxitubumal and distal convoluted
63
Q

What factors determine whether or not a solute in the blood is able to pass into the primary urine?

A

If it can’t stay in the blood. Shape of molecule. Charge of molecule

64
Q

What factors determine the rate of glomerular filtration? How does each factor determine the rate?

A

-Blood pressure
–Colloid osmotic pressure
–Capsule fliud hydrostatic pressure

65
Q

What solutes are reabsorbed and/or secreted in the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

Glucose, amino, acids, NaCl, HCO3, K, H20. Crosses 3 membranes to get from tubule to capillary

66
Q

What solutes are reabsorbed and/or secreted in the distal convoluted tubule?

A

increases water reabsobtion via aquaporins with aldosterone for Na and K absorption to deal with acid base balance.

67
Q

Where does the majority of glucose and amino acid reabsorption occur?

A

Proximal convoluted tubules

68
Q

Where does the majority of water and sodium reabsorption occur?

A

Distal convoluted tubules

69
Q

What is the main driving factor for solute reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

driven by NA, K, ATPase on basolateral membrane

70
Q

How do hormones modify the composition of the urine in the distal convoluted tubules?

A

Aldosterone increases transport proteins on basolateral membrane to increase Na and K reabsorption and excretion.
Parathyroid hormone and vit D increase Ca reabsorption by increasing Ca channels on apical membrane.

71
Q

What is meant by the U/P ratio?

A

comparison of urine solute (output) to plasma solute (input).

72
Q

U/P=1 urine and plasma are isosmotic

A

isosmotic

73
Q

U/P>1

A

hyperosmotic

74
Q

U/P

A

hyposmotic

75
Q

What is meant by “concentrated urine”?

A

U/P>1 (hyperosmotic)

76
Q

What species are able to concentrate their urine?

A

mammals, birds, and insects

77
Q

Why does the blood flow to/from the nephrons not dissipate the osmolarity gradient?

A

It prevents water from diluting down the gradient

78
Q

Why is ADH secretion by the endocrine system critical for ensuring the production of concentrated urine? What parts of the kidney are affected by ADH and what is the specific effect?

A

ADH increases aquaporins allowing water to be reabsorbed. ADH acts on the apical side and collecting duct allowing increased permeability of these cells to water

79
Q

List the 3 key ways that animals can excrete nitrogenous wastes.

A

Ammonotelism, Ureotelism. Uricotelism

80
Q

What does the glomeruli+bowman’s capsule do?

A

plasma filtration and formation of primary urine

81
Q

What does the proximal convoluted tubule do?

A

Reabsorb of H2O, Na+, Cl-, K+, HCO3-,AA, glucose, other ions; secretion of H+

82
Q

What does the Loop of Henle do?

A

establishment and maintenance of the osmolarity gradient in the medulla, some H2O and NaCl reabsorption

83
Q

What does the collecting duct do?

A

H2O reabsorption (hormone sensitive; urine concentration)

84
Q

During exercise what needs to happen to circulation?

A
  • increase O2 delivery to muscles
  • increase cardiac output
  • blood flow redistributed
85
Q
  1. What is meant by the phrase “the systemic and pulmonary circuits are arranged in a series”?
A

their volumes are the same.

86
Q

How does the overall structure of an artery differ from a vein or a capillary?

A

Branching allows blood to slow through capillaries for nutrient and gas exchange.

87
Q

What factors determine blood pressure? In what ways

A

Heart contraction generating hydorostatic pressure directlgents. y related to blood volume (kidneys). Regulated by hormones, nerves, local

88
Q

What different “chemical” factors regulate the respiratory rate?

A

Carotid bodies, aortic bodies

89
Q

What non-chemical factors can regulate respiratory rate

A

Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors

90
Q

how blood flows through the heart and the rest of the body.

A

Vena cava takes deoxygentated blood to right atrium. Right atrium to right ventricle. Then to the lungs via pulmonary artery. Gets oxygenated and leaves lungs from pulmonary vein into left atrium. Left atrium to left ventricle. Left ventricle through aorta around the body

91
Q

Where does blood go after aorta?

A

artery, arteroile, capillary, venue, vein, vena cava, right atrium

92
Q

What is the difference between plasma and serum?

A

Serum is plasma minus clotting factors

Animal Nutrition (3 decks)

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