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science organisation > animal organisation - still cards in pmt flashcards needing to be added, but theyre for infection+response > Flashcards

animal organisation - still cards in pmt flashcards needing to be added, but theyre for infection+response

1
Q

What is the main function of the digestive
system?

A

To digest food and absorb the nutrients
obtained from digestion.

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2
Q

What is the role of the pancreas and the salivary
gland in the digestive system?

A

The pancreas and the salivary gland are glands
which produce digestive juices containing
enzymes.
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3
Q

What is the role of the stomach in the digestive
system?

A

Produces hydrochloric acid - which kills any
bacteria present and provides the optimum
acidic pH for the protease enzyme to
function.

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4
Q

What is the role of enzymes in the digestive
system?

A

Enzymes act as biological catalysts which
speed up the rate of biological reactions (the
breakdown of food) without being used up.

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4
Q

What is the role of the liver in the digestive
system?

A

Produces bile (stored in the gallbladder)
which emulsifies lipids and allows the lipase
enzyme to work more efficiently.

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4
Q

What is the role of the small intestine in the
digestive system?

A

The small intestine is the site where soluble
food molecules are absorbed into the
bloodstream.

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5
Q

What is the role of the large intestine in the
digestive system?

A

Absorbs water from undigested food,
producing faeces.

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5
Q

How does the shape of an enzyme affect its
function?

A

Enzymes have a specific active site which is
complementary to their substrate.

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6
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The sum of all the reactions in a
cell or an organism.

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7
Q

What types of metabolic reactions do enzymes
catalyse?

A

Building larger molecules from smaller molecules eg.
glucose to starch.
Changing one molecule to another eg. glucose to
fructose.
Breaking down larger molecules into smaller
molecules eg. carbohydrates to glucose.

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7
Q

What is the lock and key hypothesis of enzyme
function?

A

The shape of the enzyme active site and the
substrate are complementary, so can bind
together to form an enzyme-substrate
complex

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7
Q

How does temperature affect enzyme action?

A

Up to a certain point, increasing temperature increases
enzyme action, as molecules have a higher kinetic
energy. Above a certain temperature, the shape of the
active site is altered and the enzyme becomes
denatured, so it can no longer catalyse the reaction. The
optimum temperature is around 37°.

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8
Q

What is the role of lipases in the digestive
system?

A

Lipases break down lipids into fatty acids
and glycerol.

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8
Q

How does pH affect enzyme function?

A

The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 (apart
from proteases in the stomach). If the pH is too
extreme, the shape of the active site may be
altered and the enzyme may no longer work.

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8
Q

What is the role of proteases in the digestive
system?

A

Proteases break down proteins into amino
acids.

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9
Q

Where are carbohydrases, proteases and lipases
produced in the body?

A

Carbohydrases: amylase - salivary gland and
pancreas; maltase - small intestine.
● Proteases: pepsin - stomach; others -
pancreas and small intestine.
● Lipases: pancreas and small intestine.

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9
Q

What is the role of carbohydrases in the digestive
system?

A

Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates into
monosaccharides and disaccharides. Amylase
breaks down starch into maltose, and maltase
breaks down maltose into glucose.

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10
Q

What is the role of bile in the digestive system?

A

Bile is an alkaline substance which neutralises
the hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach.
Bile emulsifies lipids to form droplets - this
increases the surface area for the lipase
enzyme to work on.

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10
Q

Where is bile made and stored in the body?

A

Bile is made by the liver and stored in the
gallbladder

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11
Q

What is the heart?

A

An organ that pumps blood around the
body

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11
Q

What is the purpose of the circulatory system?

A

Carries oxygen and other useful
substances to bodily tissues, and
removes waste substances.

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11
Q

How does the double circulatory system work?

A

One pathway carries blood from the heart to
the lungs - where the gaseous exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
● One pathway carries blood from the heart to
the tissues.

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12
Q

How are the products of digestion used?

A

They are used to build bigger molecules
such as carbohydrates and proteins.
Glucose is used as a substrate in
respiration.

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12
Q

Where does blood pumped by the right
ventricle go?

A

The lungs

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13
Q

Where does blood pumped by the left
ventricle go?

A

Body tissues

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14
Q

What are the four main blood vessels associated with
the heart?

A

Aorta (left) - carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the
body.
● Pulmonary vein (left) - carries oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the heart.
● Vena cava (right) - carries deoxygenated blood from the body to
the heart.
● Pulmonary artery (right) - carries deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs.

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15
Q

How can an abnormal heart rhythm be treated?

A

Irregular heart rhythms can be treated
using an artificial pacemaker, which
sends out electrical signals to correct the
heart’s rhythm.

15
Q

How many chambers does the heart have and
what are they called?

A

4 - right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium,
left ventricle.

15
Q

Why is the double circulatory system important?

A

It makes the circulatory system more
efficient - for example, oxygenated blood
can be pumped around the body at a
higher pressure by the left ventricle.

15
Q

Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker?

A

The left ventricle has to pump blood at a
higher pressure around the whole body.

16
Q

What is the purpose of valves in the heart?

A

Prevent the backflow of blood

16
Q

What is the approximate value of the natural
resting heart rate?

A

70 beats per minute

17
Q

What is the purpose of coronary arteries

A

Coronary arteries supply the heart
muscle with oxygenated blood.

17
Q

How are arteries adapted for their function?

A

Function: carry blood away from the heart.
● Thick muscle layer - adds strength to resist high
pressure.
● Thick elastic layer - allows arteries to stretch
and recoil - in order to withstand high pressure.

17
Q

Describe the process of blood flow through the heart

A

● Blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava, and the
left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
● The atria contract, forcing blood into the ventricles and
causing valves to shut.
● After the ventricles contract, blood in the right ventricle
enters the pulmonary artery (to the lungs) and blood in
the left ventricle enters the aorta (to the body).

17
Q

How is the heart rate controlled?

A

Heart rate is controlled by a group of cells in
the right atrium which act as a pacemaker.
They release waves of electrical activity
which cause the heart muscle to contract.

18
Q

What are the three types of blood vessel in the
body?

A

Arteries
● Veins
● Capillaries

18
Q

How would you calculate the rate of blood flow?

A

Volume of blood / number of minutes

18
Q

How are capillaries adapted for their function?

A

● Function: enable transfer of substances between
the blood and tissues.
● Walls are one cell thick - short diffusion path.
● Permeable walls - substances can diffuse across.
● Narrow lumen - blood moves slowly - more time
for diffusion.

18
Q

What tissues make up the gas exchange system?

A

● Trachea
● Intercostal muscles
● Bronchi
● Bronchioles
● Alveoli
● Diaphragm

18
Q

How are veins adapted for their function?

A

Function: carry blood towards the heart
● Wide lumen - enables low pressure
● Valves - prevent backflow of blood

18
Q

Where are the lungs found in the body?

A

The lungs are located in the thorax (within the
chest). They are protected by the ribcage and
separated from the rest of the abdomen by
the diaphragm.

19
Q

Explain how the lungs are ventilated by the
action of intercostal muscles

A

● Intercostal muscles contract
● Ribcage moves upwards and outwards
● Diaphragm flattens and volume of the chest increases
● Increased volume results in decreased pressure
● Air is drawn into lungs down pressure gradient
The inverse occurs when air moves out of the lungs.

19
Q

Describe how gas exchange occurs at the alveoli

A

Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the
capillary bloodstream down its concentration
gradient.
● Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillary into
the alveoli down its concentration gradient.

20
Q

How would you calculate the breathing rate

A

Number of breaths / number of minutes

20
Q

Describe how alveoli are adapted for gas
exchange

A

Small and arranged in clusters - larger surface
area.
● Rich blood supply - maintains concentration
gradient.
● Thin alveolar wall - short diffusion pathway.

20
Q

What substance carries the different components of
blood around the body?

A

Plasma

21
Q

What substances are transported by plasma?

A

Red blood cells
● White blood cells
● Platelets
● Carbon dioxide
● Urea
● Products of digestion
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22
Q

What is plasma?

A

A yellow liquid within blood that
transports substances around the body.

22
Q

How are red blood cells adapted for their
function?

A

Biconcave shape - increased surface area to
volume ratio.
● No nucleus - more room for haemoglobin to
bind to oxygen.
● Contain haemoglobin - binds to oxygen.

22
Q

What is the purpose of white blood cells in
blood?

A

They form part of the immune system,
which protects the body from invading
pathogens.

23
Q

How are white blood cells adapted for their
function?

A

● Have a nucleus - contains DNA which codes for
proteins
● Can produce antibodies
● Can produce antitoxins
● Can engulf and digest pathogens (phagocytosis)

23
Q

What is the purpose of red blood cells in blood?

A

Transport of oxygen around the body

24
Q

What is the purpose of platelets in blood?

A

Platelets are small cell fragments which aid
the clotting of blood at the site of a wound.

24
Q

Why is the function of platelets important?

A

● Platelets aid in the process of blood clotting
(conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin). As a result, red
blood cells are trapped in the fibrin network,
forming a clot which prevents excessive bleeding.
Scab formation (after the clot has dried) prevents
bacteria from entering the wound.

24
Q

What is coronary heart disease

A

Coronary heart disease occurs when the
coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle
become blocked with a buildup of fatty material.
This restricts the supply of oxygen to the heart,
possibly leading to a heart attack or death.

24
Q

What is a stent and how does it work?

A

A stent is a metal mesh tube that is inserted
into a blocked artery so that it remains open.
The stent is inflated using a balloon, which is
later removed to allow blood to flow freely

25
Q

What are statins?

A

Statins are drugs which reduce the level of
LDL (bad) cholesterol which contributes to
the development of coronary heart disease

25
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of statins?

A

Advantages
● Reduce risk of strokes, coronary heart disease and heart
attacks
● Increase level of HDL (good) cholesterol
Disadvantages
● Have to be taken continuously
● May have side effects
● Effect may not be immediate

25
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of
stents?

A

Advantages
● Insertion can be carried out without general anaesthetic
● Quick recovery time
● Lower the risk of a heart attack
Disadvantages
● Risk of postoperative infection
● Risk of blood clots at site of stent

26
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of
biological valves?

A

Advantages
● Work very well - no medication required
Disadvantages
● Only lasts 12-15 years

26
Q

What are the consequences of leaky heart
valves

A

Blood flows in the wrong direction, causing
the heart to become less efficient. Patients
may become breathless and die as a result.

26
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of
mechanical valves?

A

Advantages
● Last for a very long time
Disadvantages
● Need to take medication to prevent blood
clotting around valve

26
Q

What types of valves can replace leaky valves?

A

Mechanical - made of metal or polymers
● Biological - taken from animals (pigs,
sometimes humans)

26
Q

What is the purpose of an artificial heart?

A

Artificial hearts are intended to support a
patient’s heart while they wait for a suitable
donor heart.

27
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of
artificial hearts?

A

Advantages
● Less likely to be rejected by immune system
● Allows damaged heart to rest to help recovery
Disadvantages
● Risk of infection due to surgery
● Risk of blood clots
● Have to take blood-thinning drugs

28
Q

What is a heart bypass surgery?

A

A surgery where blocked coronary
arteries are replaced with sections of
veins taken from other parts of the body

science organisation (9 decks)

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