Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
Arm/hand bones
A
Humerus Ulna Radius (thumb side) Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges
2
Q
Leg/ankle/feet bones
A
Acetabulum Head of femur Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Talis Calcaneous Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges
3
Q
Chest/shoulders/head
A
Sternum Ribs Clavicle Scapula Glenoid fossa Skull/cranium
4
Q
Pelvis
A
Illium
Ischium
5
Q
Synovial joint features
A
Ligaments
Capsule
Cartilage
Fluid
6
Q
Ligament
A
Dense connective tissue
Prevents extreme movement
Prevents the joint getting injured
7
Q
Synovial fluid
A
In space enclosed by articular cartilage
Lubrication/shock absorption/nutrient distribution
Keeps joint mobile and allows smoother movement
8
Q
Articular cartilage
A
Smooth layers that line end of bones
Minimise friction/shock absorption
Perform pain free as bones dont grind
9
Q
Joint capsule
A
2 layers of tissue outside the joint
Outer - hold bones together
Inner - absorb/secrete fluid
Prevents injury
10
Q
Bursa
A
Sac lines with fluid, at points of friction
Prevents friction between tendon/bone and allows free movement
Reduces pain
11
Q
Knee joint features
A
ACL- anterior cruciate ligament
LCL- lateral collateral ligament
MCL- medial collateral ligament
PCL- posterior cruciate ligament
12
Q
Sagittal plane
A
Vertically divides body into left and right
Front/back movement
Flexion, extension, dorsi-flexion, plantar-flexion
13
Q
Frontal plane
A
Vertically divides into posterior and anterior
Side to side
Adduction and abduction
14
Q
Transverse plane
A
Horizontally divides into superior and inferior
Around a fixed point
Horizontal extension/flexion
Lateral/medial rotation
15
Q
Fixator
A
Muscle that holds the active joint in place
16
Q
Agonist
A
Muscle that causes the movement
17
Q
Antagonist
A
Muscle that relaxes to allow the movement
18
Q
Origin
A
Bone that remains stationary
19
Q
Insertion
A
Bone that moves towards the origin
20
Q
Muscles at ankle joint
A
Tibialus anterior
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
21
Q
Quadriceps - knee joint
A
Vastus lateralis
Rectus femoris
Vastus medialis
Vastus intermedius
22
Q
Hamstrings - knee joint
A
Biceps femoris
Semi-tendinosus
Semi-membranosus
23
Q
Hip joint - muscles
A
Iliopsoas (front) Gluteus maximus (back)
Brevis/magnus/longus (inner thigh)
Gluteus medius/minimus (side)
24
Q
Shoulder joint - muscles
A
Posterior deltoid (back) Middle deltoid (middle) Anterior deltoid (front) Latissimus dorsi Trapezius Pectoralis major Teres major/subscapularis/infraspinatus/teres minor
25
Elbow muscles
Biceps brachii
| Triceps brachii
26
Wrist muscles
Wrist extensors
| Wrist flexors
27
Rotator cuff muscles
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Subscapularis
28
Core stability muscles
Transverse abdominis
Multifidis
Help to stabilise the body
Good posture
Solid base
Aids all movement
29
Concentric contraction
Isotonic
Muscles shortens as it contracts
Pulls two bones together and causes movement
30
Eccentric contraction
Isotonic
Muscle lengthens as it contracts
Controls movement
Resists forces e.g. gravity
31
Isometric contraction
Muscle remains the same length
Creates tension
No movement
Maintains posture
32
Motor unit
Motor neuron and the muscle fibres stimulated by its axon
33
Motor neuron
Nerve cell that conducts a nerve impulse to a group of muscle fibres
34
Neurotransmitter
Chemical produced by a neuron which transmits nerve impulses across the synaptic cleft to muscle fibres, called acetylcholine
35
Axon
Long projection from neuron which carries electrical impulses away from cell body
36
Motor end plate
Found at the end of the axon and makes contact with muscle fibres over the synaptic cleft
37
All or none law
All fibres will contract or not at all
38
Action potential
Positive electrical charge inside the nerve and muscle cells which conducts the nerve impulse down the neuron and muscle fibres.
39
Synaptic cleft
Small gap between motor end plate and muscle fibres
40
Neuromuscular junction
Where motor end plates meet the muscle fibres
41
How a motor unit causes contraction
Signal from brain to neuron (CNS)
Impulse gathered in cell body
Signal moves along axon to motor end plate
Neuromuscular junction connects to muscle fibres
Signal moves across synaptic cleft with aid of acetylcholine
All or none law, cause action potential
42
Motor unit size
Small units, intricate movements in smaller muscles, few small SO fibres, dont fatigue, endurance events, maintain posture
Large units, gross movements in larger muscle groups, fatigue quickly, short/explosive movements
43
Slow oxidative fibres
```
Type 1
Least amount of force
Lasts for long periods without fatigue
High mitochondria density
High myoglobin content
Slow contraction speed
Suited to long distance sports e.g. marathon
```
44
Fast oxidative glycolytic fibres
```
Type 2a
Begins to tire after 6 mins
Lower force for longer time
Large neuron size
Moderate mitochondria density
Moderate myoglobin content
High phosphocreatine stores
Faster speed of contraction
Suited to middle distance e.g. 1500m, 800m
```
45
Fast glycolytic fibres
```
Type 2b
Tire in around 2mins
Quick bursts of energy
Large neuron size
Low mitochondria density
Low myoglobin content
High phosphocreatine stores
Fast contraction speed
Low resistance to fatigue
Suited to short distance e.g. 100m, 300m hurdles
```
46
Nature/nurture fibre types
```
Nature-
Inherited from parents
80% of europeans have FG
Super fast/slow twitch
Born with the gene
```
```
Nurture-
Sporty culture
Suitable environment
National sports (depends on country)
Opportunity for development
```
47
DOMS
Delayed Onset of Muscular Soreness
Caused by eccentric fibre damage
48
Endocardium (heart)
Thin inner layer
| Smooth to allow blood to flow freely
49
Myocardium (heart)
Muscular middle layer
Cardiac muscle tissue
Enables heart to contract
50
Epicardium (heart)
Thin outer layer
| Smooth to touch
51
Chambers of heart
```
Right atrium (deoxygenated blood)
Right ventricle (deoxygenated blood)
```
Septum
```
Left atrium (oxygenated blood)
Left ventricle (oxygenated blood)
```
52
Pulmonary valve (heart)
Prevents blood from travelling to the lungs too soon
| Right semilunar valve
53
Tricuspid valve (heart)
Prevents blood from seeping into right ventricle
| Right AV valve
54
Aortic valve (heart)
Prevents blood from going to the body too soon
| Left semilunar valve
55
Bicuspid valve (heart)
Prevents blood leaking into left ventricle
| Left AV valve
56
Superior/inferior vena cava (heart)
Transport deoxygenated blood to right atrium
57
Pulmonary artery (heart)
Takes blood away from right ventricle and to the lungs
58
Pulmonary veins (heart)
Oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
59
Aorta (heart)
Oxygenated blood to the rest of the body from the left ventricle
60
Coronary arteries/veins
Arteries - supply heart with oxygen & glucose
Veins - drain deoxygenated blood back to right atrium via coronary sinus
61
Passage of blood through dual circulatory system
Deoxygenated blood into right atrium through superior/inferior vena cava
Into right ventricle through tricuspid valve
Pulmonary artery carries through pulmonary valve to lungs to get oxygenated
Pulmonary veins carry back to left atrium
Into the left ventricle through bicuspid valve
Exits left ventricle through aortic valve/aorta and pumped to rest of the body
62
Conduction system
SA node starts signal
Electrical impulse to atria to contract
AV node delays signal so atria can contract
Passed down AV bundle to right/left bundle branches
Purkinje fibres allow ventricles to contract
63
Cardiac cycle
Mechanical events of one heartbeat, 0.8 seconds
Diastole - relaxation of beat
Systole - contraction of beat
64
Diastole
No electrical impulse
Heart relaxes
Blood into atria
65
Atrial systole
SA node signal to atria
Atria contracts
Blood into ventricles
66
Ventricular systole
AV node signal to bundle of His, purkinje fibres
Ventricle contracts
Blood goes to lungs
67
Heart rate
Number of times the heart beats per minute (cardiac cycle)
| Average around 72bpm
68
Bradycardia
Heart rate below 60bpm
- regular training
- strong heart walls
69
Stroke volume (SV)
Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle per beat
Average of 70ml
EDV - ESV = SV
Full amount - amount left = amount pumped out
Depends on venous return and ventricular elasticity/contractility
70
Cardiac output (Q)
Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle per minute
Average 5000ml
Q=HRxSV
71
HR during sub-max exercise
```
Anticipatory rise
Rapid increase
Steady state/plateau
Rapid decrease
Resting levels
```
72
HR during maximal
Anticipatory rise
Rapid increase
Slower rate of increase
Slow decrease to recovery
73
Why does SV increase during exercise?
Increased venous return
Frank Starling Mechanism
-more blood/quicker it returns, greater stretch on heart wall
-stronger contraction
74
Cardiac control centre (CCC)
Located in the medulla oblongata
Controls heart rate
Stimulates the SA node
75
Proprioceptors
Detect movement in joints, tendons & muscles
| Part of CCC neural control
76
Chemoreceptors
Detects chemical change, o2, co2, lactic acid
| Located in aorta and carotid artery
77
Baroreceptors
Detect increase in pressure
| In arterial walls (stretch indicates blood pressure)
78
Temperature in CCC
Change viscosity if blood
| Speeds up nerve transmission
79
Venous Return in CCC
Change stretch of ventricle walls
80
Adrenaline/noradrenaline in CCC
Stimulate SA node and increase stroke volume
81
Nerves in CCC
Accelerator nerve
Signal to SA node
Speed up HR
sympathetic nervous system
Vagus nerve
Parasympathetic nervous system
Slows HR
82
Structure of arteries
Thick layer of smooth muscle
| Allows vasodilation/constriction
83
Structure of arterioles
Smaller arteries
Thick layer
Vasoconstriction/dilation
Pre-capillary sphincter, rings of smooth muscle that allow/stop flow of blood to direct it
84
Structure of capillaries
Very thin wall
Slows blood flow
Allows gaseous exchange
85
Structure of veins
Thin layer of smooth muscle
Venoconstriction/dilation
Have valves to allow blood to flow in one direction
86
Structure of venule
Thin layer of smooth muscle
| Venoconstriction/dilation
87
Venous return
Blood transported from capillaries back to right atrium
88
Mechanisms to help Venous Return
Pocket valves
blood only flows in one direction towards heart
In veins
Muscle pump
Muscles squeeze veins and force blood up
Respiratory pump
Change in pressure in thoracic cavity
Gravity
Blood above heart is brought down by gravity
89
Blood pooling
Insufficient pressure means blood will sit in the pocket valves
90
Vasomotor control centre (VCC)
Controls vascular shunt and sends signals to blood vessels
Receptors
Chemoreceptors
Baroreceptors
91
Sympathetic stimulation
```
Increase closes pre-capillary sphincters
Causes vasoconstriction
Muscle gets harder
Redirects blood to where its needed
Reduced blood flow
```
Decrease opens pcs
Causes vasodilation
Muscle gets softer
Increased blood flow
92
Vascular shunt
Redistribution of blood from where its not needed to where it is during exercise
93
Inspiration/expiration at rest
In - diaphragm contracts/flattens, external intercostals pull ribs up/out
Volume of thoracic cavity increases
Pressure in lungs decreases
Ex - diaphragm relaxes, external intercostals relax and pull ribs in/down
Volume decreases
Pressure increases
Air moves from high to low pressure
94
Inspiration/expiration during exercise
In - pectoralis minor/sternocleidomastoid
Ex - internal intercostals/rectus abdominus
95
Tidal volume
Volume of air breathed in/out per breath
96
Minute ventilation
Volume of air breathed in/out per minute
Increases in line with intensity
Continues to rise during maximal work
Rapid decrease during recovery
97
VE=TVxF
Minute ventilation = tidal volume x frequency (breathing rate)
98
Haemoglobin
Aids the transport of oxygen in red blood cells
Fully saturated when carrying 4 oxygen molecules
99
RCC (breathing control)
Located in medulla oblongata
| Works with CCC and VCC
100
Inspiratory/expiratory centre (at rest)
Intercostal nerves --> external intercostals
Phrenic nerves --> diaphragm
```
Pull rubs up/out
Diaphragm flattens
Volume increases
Pressure decreases
Air drawn in
```
Expiratory --> passive and inactive
101
Inspiratory/expiratory centre (during exercise)
Proprioceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors -> send info to inspiratory centre
Internal intercostals - rectus abdominus - pectoralis minor - sternocleidomastoid
Air is forced out faster
Pressure decreases more
Volume of thoracic cavity increases more than at rest
```
Expiration is active during exercise
Baroreceptors in lungs
Lung inflation
Contract muscle if too stretched
Hering Breur -> prevents lungs getting over stretched and stops stimulation
```
102
Diffusion
Gases move from an area of higher to lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane
103
Diffusion gradient
Difference in concentration between one side of the membrane and the other
Gas moves down the gradient
Steeper gradient = faster diffusion
104
Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by a gas within a mixture of gases
105
External respiration
Between alveoli and surrounding capillaries
High to low conc. down the gradient
O2 associates with haemoglobin
Blood is fully saturated
Increase pp in alveoli
Decrease pp in capillary blood
CO2 passes through membrane quicker
Increase pp in capillary blood
Decrease pp in alveoli
106
Internal respiration
Between capillaries and muscle tissue
High to low conc. down the gradient
O2 disassociates with haemoblobin
Diffuses into muscle as it passes
Increase pp in capillary
Decrease pp in muscle
Cells saturated with CO2 to be removed
Increase pp in muscle
Decrease pp in capillary blood
107
Oxyheamoglobin disassociation curve
pp of O2 at rest = 40mmHg
75% saturation
25% dissociated
pp of O2 during exercise = 15mmHg
25% saturation
75% dissociation
More O2 dissociates because it has to be supplied to the muscles
pp of O2 lowers because....
Increase in blood/muscle temp
Lactic acid
CO2 production
Factors will move the graph to the right, (Bohr shift)
