Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
Arm/hand bones
Humerus Ulna Radius (thumb side) Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges
Leg/ankle/feet bones
Acetabulum Head of femur Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Talis Calcaneous Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges
Chest/shoulders/head
Sternum Ribs Clavicle Scapula Glenoid fossa Skull/cranium
Pelvis
Illium
Ischium
Synovial joint features
Ligaments
Capsule
Cartilage
Fluid
Ligament
Dense connective tissue
Prevents extreme movement
Prevents the joint getting injured
Synovial fluid
In space enclosed by articular cartilage
Lubrication/shock absorption/nutrient distribution
Keeps joint mobile and allows smoother movement
Articular cartilage
Smooth layers that line end of bones
Minimise friction/shock absorption
Perform pain free as bones dont grind
Joint capsule
2 layers of tissue outside the joint
Outer - hold bones together
Inner - absorb/secrete fluid
Prevents injury
Bursa
Sac lines with fluid, at points of friction
Prevents friction between tendon/bone and allows free movement
Reduces pain
Knee joint features
ACL- anterior cruciate ligament
LCL- lateral collateral ligament
MCL- medial collateral ligament
PCL- posterior cruciate ligament
Sagittal plane
Vertically divides body into left and right
Front/back movement
Flexion, extension, dorsi-flexion, plantar-flexion
Frontal plane
Vertically divides into posterior and anterior
Side to side
Adduction and abduction
Transverse plane
Horizontally divides into superior and inferior
Around a fixed point
Horizontal extension/flexion
Lateral/medial rotation
Fixator
Muscle that holds the active joint in place
Agonist
Muscle that causes the movement
Antagonist
Muscle that relaxes to allow the movement
Origin
Bone that remains stationary
Insertion
Bone that moves towards the origin
Muscles at ankle joint
Tibialus anterior
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Quadriceps - knee joint
Vastus lateralis
Rectus femoris
Vastus medialis
Vastus intermedius
Hamstrings - knee joint
Biceps femoris
Semi-tendinosus
Semi-membranosus
Hip joint - muscles
Iliopsoas (front) Gluteus maximus (back)
Brevis/magnus/longus (inner thigh)
Gluteus medius/minimus (side)
Shoulder joint - muscles
Posterior deltoid (back) Middle deltoid (middle) Anterior deltoid (front) Latissimus dorsi Trapezius Pectoralis major Teres major/subscapularis/infraspinatus/teres minor
Elbow muscles
Biceps brachii
Triceps brachii
Wrist muscles
Wrist extensors
Wrist flexors
Rotator cuff muscles
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Subscapularis
Core stability muscles
Transverse abdominis
Multifidis
Help to stabilise the body
Good posture
Solid base
Aids all movement
Concentric contraction
Isotonic
Muscles shortens as it contracts
Pulls two bones together and causes movement
Eccentric contraction
Isotonic
Muscle lengthens as it contracts
Controls movement
Resists forces e.g. gravity
Isometric contraction
Muscle remains the same length
Creates tension
No movement
Maintains posture
Motor unit
Motor neuron and the muscle fibres stimulated by its axon
Motor neuron
Nerve cell that conducts a nerve impulse to a group of muscle fibres
Neurotransmitter
Chemical produced by a neuron which transmits nerve impulses across the synaptic cleft to muscle fibres, called acetylcholine
Axon
Long projection from neuron which carries electrical impulses away from cell body
Motor end plate
Found at the end of the axon and makes contact with muscle fibres over the synaptic cleft
All or none law
All fibres will contract or not at all
Action potential
Positive electrical charge inside the nerve and muscle cells which conducts the nerve impulse down the neuron and muscle fibres.
Synaptic cleft
Small gap between motor end plate and muscle fibres
Neuromuscular junction
Where motor end plates meet the muscle fibres
How a motor unit causes contraction
Signal from brain to neuron (CNS)
Impulse gathered in cell body
Signal moves along axon to motor end plate
Neuromuscular junction connects to muscle fibres
Signal moves across synaptic cleft with aid of acetylcholine
All or none law, cause action potential
Motor unit size
Small units, intricate movements in smaller muscles, few small SO fibres, dont fatigue, endurance events, maintain posture
Large units, gross movements in larger muscle groups, fatigue quickly, short/explosive movements
Slow oxidative fibres
Type 1 Least amount of force Lasts for long periods without fatigue High mitochondria density High myoglobin content Slow contraction speed Suited to long distance sports e.g. marathon
Fast oxidative glycolytic fibres
Type 2a Begins to tire after 6 mins Lower force for longer time Large neuron size Moderate mitochondria density Moderate myoglobin content High phosphocreatine stores Faster speed of contraction Suited to middle distance e.g. 1500m, 800m
Fast glycolytic fibres
Type 2b Tire in around 2mins Quick bursts of energy Large neuron size Low mitochondria density Low myoglobin content High phosphocreatine stores Fast contraction speed Low resistance to fatigue Suited to short distance e.g. 100m, 300m hurdles
Nature/nurture fibre types
Nature- Inherited from parents 80% of europeans have FG Super fast/slow twitch Born with the gene
Nurture- Sporty culture Suitable environment National sports (depends on country) Opportunity for development
DOMS
Delayed Onset of Muscular Soreness
Caused by eccentric fibre damage
Endocardium (heart)
Thin inner layer
Smooth to allow blood to flow freely
Myocardium (heart)
Muscular middle layer
Cardiac muscle tissue
Enables heart to contract
Epicardium (heart)
Thin outer layer
Smooth to touch
Chambers of heart
Right atrium (deoxygenated blood) Right ventricle (deoxygenated blood)
Septum
Left atrium (oxygenated blood) Left ventricle (oxygenated blood)
Pulmonary valve (heart)
Prevents blood from travelling to the lungs too soon
Right semilunar valve
Tricuspid valve (heart)
Prevents blood from seeping into right ventricle
Right AV valve
Aortic valve (heart)
Prevents blood from going to the body too soon
Left semilunar valve
Bicuspid valve (heart)
Prevents blood leaking into left ventricle
Left AV valve
Superior/inferior vena cava (heart)
Transport deoxygenated blood to right atrium
Pulmonary artery (heart)
Takes blood away from right ventricle and to the lungs
Pulmonary veins (heart)
Oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
Aorta (heart)
Oxygenated blood to the rest of the body from the left ventricle
Coronary arteries/veins
Arteries - supply heart with oxygen & glucose
Veins - drain deoxygenated blood back to right atrium via coronary sinus
Passage of blood through dual circulatory system
Deoxygenated blood into right atrium through superior/inferior vena cava
Into right ventricle through tricuspid valve
Pulmonary artery carries through pulmonary valve to lungs to get oxygenated
Pulmonary veins carry back to left atrium
Into the left ventricle through bicuspid valve
Exits left ventricle through aortic valve/aorta and pumped to rest of the body
Conduction system
SA node starts signal
Electrical impulse to atria to contract
AV node delays signal so atria can contract
Passed down AV bundle to right/left bundle branches
Purkinje fibres allow ventricles to contract
Cardiac cycle
Mechanical events of one heartbeat, 0.8 seconds
Diastole - relaxation of beat
Systole - contraction of beat
Diastole
No electrical impulse
Heart relaxes
Blood into atria
Atrial systole
SA node signal to atria
Atria contracts
Blood into ventricles
Ventricular systole
AV node signal to bundle of His, purkinje fibres
Ventricle contracts
Blood goes to lungs
Heart rate
Number of times the heart beats per minute (cardiac cycle)
Average around 72bpm
Bradycardia
Heart rate below 60bpm
- regular training
- strong heart walls
Stroke volume (SV)
Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle per beat
Average of 70ml
EDV - ESV = SV
Full amount - amount left = amount pumped out
Depends on venous return and ventricular elasticity/contractility
Cardiac output (Q)
Volume of blood ejected from left ventricle per minute
Average 5000ml
Q=HRxSV
HR during sub-max exercise
Anticipatory rise Rapid increase Steady state/plateau Rapid decrease Resting levels
HR during maximal
Anticipatory rise
Rapid increase
Slower rate of increase
Slow decrease to recovery
Why does SV increase during exercise?
Increased venous return
Frank Starling Mechanism
-more blood/quicker it returns, greater stretch on heart wall
-stronger contraction
Cardiac control centre (CCC)
Located in the medulla oblongata
Controls heart rate
Stimulates the SA node
Proprioceptors
Detect movement in joints, tendons & muscles
Part of CCC neural control
Chemoreceptors
Detects chemical change, o2, co2, lactic acid
Located in aorta and carotid artery
Baroreceptors
Detect increase in pressure
In arterial walls (stretch indicates blood pressure)
Temperature in CCC
Change viscosity if blood
Speeds up nerve transmission
Venous Return in CCC
Change stretch of ventricle walls
Adrenaline/noradrenaline in CCC
Stimulate SA node and increase stroke volume
Nerves in CCC
Accelerator nerve
Signal to SA node
Speed up HR
sympathetic nervous system
Vagus nerve
Parasympathetic nervous system
Slows HR
Structure of arteries
Thick layer of smooth muscle
Allows vasodilation/constriction
Structure of arterioles
Smaller arteries
Thick layer
Vasoconstriction/dilation
Pre-capillary sphincter, rings of smooth muscle that allow/stop flow of blood to direct it
Structure of capillaries
Very thin wall
Slows blood flow
Allows gaseous exchange
Structure of veins
Thin layer of smooth muscle
Venoconstriction/dilation
Have valves to allow blood to flow in one direction
Structure of venule
Thin layer of smooth muscle
Venoconstriction/dilation
Venous return
Blood transported from capillaries back to right atrium
Mechanisms to help Venous Return
Pocket valves
blood only flows in one direction towards heart
In veins
Muscle pump
Muscles squeeze veins and force blood up
Respiratory pump
Change in pressure in thoracic cavity
Gravity
Blood above heart is brought down by gravity
Blood pooling
Insufficient pressure means blood will sit in the pocket valves
Vasomotor control centre (VCC)
Controls vascular shunt and sends signals to blood vessels
Receptors
Chemoreceptors
Baroreceptors
Sympathetic stimulation
Increase closes pre-capillary sphincters Causes vasoconstriction Muscle gets harder Redirects blood to where its needed Reduced blood flow
Decrease opens pcs
Causes vasodilation
Muscle gets softer
Increased blood flow
Vascular shunt
Redistribution of blood from where its not needed to where it is during exercise
Inspiration/expiration at rest
In - diaphragm contracts/flattens, external intercostals pull ribs up/out
Volume of thoracic cavity increases
Pressure in lungs decreases
Ex - diaphragm relaxes, external intercostals relax and pull ribs in/down
Volume decreases
Pressure increases
Air moves from high to low pressure
Inspiration/expiration during exercise
In - pectoralis minor/sternocleidomastoid
Ex - internal intercostals/rectus abdominus
Tidal volume
Volume of air breathed in/out per breath
Minute ventilation
Volume of air breathed in/out per minute
Increases in line with intensity
Continues to rise during maximal work
Rapid decrease during recovery
VE=TVxF
Minute ventilation = tidal volume x frequency (breathing rate)
Haemoglobin
Aids the transport of oxygen in red blood cells
Fully saturated when carrying 4 oxygen molecules
RCC (breathing control)
Located in medulla oblongata
Works with CCC and VCC
Inspiratory/expiratory centre (at rest)
Intercostal nerves –> external intercostals
Phrenic nerves –> diaphragm
Pull rubs up/out Diaphragm flattens Volume increases Pressure decreases Air drawn in
Expiratory –> passive and inactive
Inspiratory/expiratory centre (during exercise)
Proprioceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors -> send info to inspiratory centre
Internal intercostals - rectus abdominus - pectoralis minor - sternocleidomastoid
Air is forced out faster
Pressure decreases more
Volume of thoracic cavity increases more than at rest
Expiration is active during exercise Baroreceptors in lungs Lung inflation Contract muscle if too stretched Hering Breur -> prevents lungs getting over stretched and stops stimulation
Diffusion
Gases move from an area of higher to lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane
Diffusion gradient
Difference in concentration between one side of the membrane and the other
Gas moves down the gradient
Steeper gradient = faster diffusion
Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by a gas within a mixture of gases
External respiration
Between alveoli and surrounding capillaries
High to low conc. down the gradient
O2 associates with haemoglobin
Blood is fully saturated
Increase pp in alveoli
Decrease pp in capillary blood
CO2 passes through membrane quicker
Increase pp in capillary blood
Decrease pp in alveoli
Internal respiration
Between capillaries and muscle tissue
High to low conc. down the gradient
O2 disassociates with haemoblobin
Diffuses into muscle as it passes
Increase pp in capillary
Decrease pp in muscle
Cells saturated with CO2 to be removed
Increase pp in muscle
Decrease pp in capillary blood
Oxyheamoglobin disassociation curve
pp of O2 at rest = 40mmHg
75% saturation
25% dissociated
pp of O2 during exercise = 15mmHg
25% saturation
75% dissociation
More O2 dissociates because it has to be supplied to the muscles
pp of O2 lowers because….
Increase in blood/muscle temp
Lactic acid
CO2 production
Factors will move the graph to the right, (Bohr shift)
