Anatomy exam simpler/shorter Flashcards
- The types of bones. The long bone general morphology
- Long bones
o Shaft
o Epiphysis- proximal and distal
o Outer layer of compact bone
o Medullary cavity - short bones
- Flat bones
- Irregular bones
- Pneumatic bones
- The morphology of typical vertebra
Typical features:
- Vertebral body
- Vertebral foramen
- Vertebral arch
- Spinous process
- Transverse process
- Accessory process
- Mamillary process
- Cranial and caudal articular process
- Cranial and caudal vertebral notch
- Cranial and caudal extremity
Vertebral column divided into regions:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Coccygeal/caudal
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features): ATLAS
- No spinous process
- Dorsal and ventral arches
- Dorsal and ventral tuberculum
- Occipital arch
- Lateral vertebral foramen
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features: AXIS
- Ventral crest
- Dens articulates with the fovea dentis of the atlas
- Arch has expanded spinous process
- Caudal vertebral notch
- Transverse process have transverse foramen
- Lateral vertebral foramen
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features): CERVICAL VERTABRA (simple normal kind)
- Bodies of cervical vertebrae get progressively shorter from cranial to caudal
- Spinous processes increase in length from cranial to caudal
- Transverse processes present (except C7), called costotransverse processes, with transverse foramen
- Dorsal and ventral tubercles present on transverse processes
- Articular processes are large
- Lateral vertebral foremen
- The thoracic vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features)
- Number of Th. = number of ribs
- Tall spinous processes directed caudodorsally
- Deep caudal notches
- Short articular processes
- Mamillary processes present
- The lumbar vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features)
- Absent costal facets
- Spinous processes are shorter and directed craniodorsally
- Expanded transverse processes called costal processes
- Articular process fuse with mammillary process to form mamillar-articular processes
- The structure of the sacrum (morphology, typical features)
- Fused to form sacrum in all domestic species
- S1 has expanded wings that form an articulation with the pelvic girdle
- Dorsal surface has spinous processes directed caudally
- Ventral surface marked by transverse line
- Sacral canal formed by successive vertebral foramens
- Ventral sacral foramen and dorsal sacral foramen
- Transverse processes replaced by lateral sacral crest
- The types of ribs. Classification of ribs. The number of ribs in domestic mammals
The parts of the sternum. The morphology of the RIB
Type of ribs:
- Costae Sternales -> articulate with sternum
- Costae asternales -> indirectly connected to the sternum through cartilage
- Costae fluctuantes -> not connected with sternum, free in the musculature
Number of paired ribs in domestic mammals:
Ru 13
Ca 12 - 14
Su 13-16
Eq 18
Features:
- Ribs are paired
- Proximal aspect has the head and tubercle of the rib
- Neck of the rib is between the head and tubercle
- Body of the rib has a costal sulcus
- The types of ribs. Classification of ribs. The number of ribs in domestic mammals
The parts of the sternum. The morphology of the STERNUM
- Sternabrae joined together by the intersternal cartilages
- Manubrium
- Cranial end of manubrium is cartilage
- Body
- Costal notch for articulation with costal cartilage
- Xiphoid process is the last sternebra
- The morphology of the scapula
- Triangular in outline, extends into crescent shaped cartilage
- Spine of the scapula creates cranial supraspinous fossa and caudal infraspinous fossa
- Medial surface has subscapular fossa
- Acromion- well developed process at the end of the spine of the scapula. Extended to form hamatus process in dog and suprahamatus process in cat
- Cranial border forms scapular notch
- Cranio-medial notch in horses called glenoid notch
- The morphology of the humerus
- Humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
- Greater tubercle has a cranial and caudal part
- Lesser tubercle
- Tubercles separated by bicipital groove, further subdivided by a flat protuberance in cow and an intermediate tubercle in horses
- Deltoid tuberosity extends distally to become the humeral crest
- Teres major tuberosity on the medial surface in cow and horse. Replaced by crest of the lesser tubercle in carnivores
- The morphology of the antebrachial skeleton (Radius and Ulna)
Radius
- Radius is the larger of the two bones in the forelimb, rod-shaped
- Radial tuberosity
- Distal extremity forms a trochlea and presents at the articular surface towards the carpus
- Radial styloid process
- Distal part of the ulna is completely fused to the radius in the cow, in horses the lateral styloid process is formed instead
- Interosseous space is the gap between the radius and ulna
Ulna
- Olecranon and olecranon tuber form the prominent part of the elbow
- Distal extremity is fused with radius, continues as the lateral styloid process which articulates with the proximal carpals
- The carpal bones in domestic mammals (number and names)
Proximal Row
- Radial carpal
- Intermediate carpal
- Ulnar carpal
- Accessory carpal
Distal Row
- First carpal
- Second carpal
- Third carpal
- Fourth carpal
Proximal row articulates with the radius and ulna in the antebrachiocarpal joint
Distal row articulates with the metacarpal bones to form the carpometacarpal joint
- The metacarpal bones in domestic animals
- Proximal extremity has articular surface for articulation with the distal row of carpal bones
- Metacarpal tuberosity forms the insertion for the extensor carpi radialis muscle
- Sagittal crest divides trochlea of distal extremity into medial and lateral condyles
- Flattened/rectangular cross section (in comparison to metatarsals round cross section)
- The bones of digit in horse
- Proximal phalanx has a proximal extremity, shaft, and distal extremity
- P1 has articular facets and prominences on each end
- Middle phalanx is shorter than P1 but similar
- Distal phalanx modified to conform to the hoof
- Hoof has flexor and solar surface
- The morphology of the ilium
- Ilium forms dorsocranial part of hip bone, extends obliquely from acetabulum to sacrum
- Cranial wing orientation is species specific
- Columnar body contributes to acetabulum
- Iliac crest connects the coxal and sacral tubers
- Gluteal surface has gluteal lines
- Ventral border has the arcuate line and psoas tubercle
- The morphology of the ischium
- Ischium body forms part of the acetabulum
- Dorsal border of the ischium body forms ischiatic spine
- Lesser ischiatic notch
- Caudal plate is thickened to form ischial tuber
- Caudal borders meet in concave ischial arch
- The morphology of the pubis
- Pubis is L shaped and contributes to the formation of the obturator foramen
- Body of pubis
- Transverse acetabular branch
- Cranial edge of acetabular branch is called the pecten of the pubis, forms the iliopubic eminence
- Ventral surface of iliopubic eminence is crossed by pubic groove in horses
- Sagittal symphysial branch
- Pubis of each side fuses in pubic symphysis
- Ventral surface of pubic symphysis has protruding ventral pubic tubercle
- The morphology of the femur
- Head articulates with acetabulum
- Greater trochanter found laterally on the proximal extremity
- Trochanteric fossa divides the greater trochanter and the neck of the femur. Divided into cranial and caudal parts in the horse
- Lesser trochanter present on medial side. Joined to greater trochanter by trochanteric crest
- Additional process, third trochanter present in horses
- Diaphysis formed by shaft. Rough caudal surface, smooth cranially
- Bicipital tuberosity
- Trochlea on distal extremity, articulates with the patella and separated by a groove, with proximal protuberance in horses
- Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia
- Intercondylar fossa divides the condyles
- Lateral condyle has extensor fossa
- Supracondylar fossa present in horses on the caudodistal aspect
- Lateral and medial supracondylar tuberosities
- Supracondylar crest joins tuberosity to condyles
- The morphology of the tibia and fibula
Tibia
- Cross section of proximal end is triangular
- Lateral and medial condyles separated by popliteal notch
- Intercondylar eminence between the articular surfaces of the condyles
- Lateral aspect of condyles has articular surface for articulation with fibula. In cows, the fibula is fused here
- Tibial tuberosity is a cranial projection from the shaft
- Extensor groove runs on craniolateral aspect of tibia
- Nutrient foramen
- Lateral malleolus is a distinct bone in the cow
Fibula
- Fibula always lateral to tibia
- Interosseous space divides tibia and fibula
- Divided into a proximal head, a neck, a shaft, lateral malleolus
- Head of fibula articulates with tibia
- Distal extremity incorporated into tibia, forming lateral malleolus
- The bones of the foot (tarsus – number and names, metacarpus/metatarsus differentiation in horse and cow)
Proximal Row
- Tibial tarsal/ Talus
- Fibular tarsal/ Calcaneus
Central Row
- Central tarsal
Distal Row
- First tarsal
- Second tarsal
- Third tarsal
- Fourth tarsal
Metacarpal
- Proximal extremity articulates with the distal row of carpal bones
- Metacarpal tuberosity forms the insertion for the extensor carpi radialis muscle
- The structure of the distal phalanx (ungular bone) in the horse
Features:
- Lateral and medial cartilage at each side
- Distal sesamoid bone called navicular
- 3 surfaces
o Solar
o Parietal
o Coronary - 2 borders
o Solar
o Coronary- forms extensor process
- The construction of the synovial joint and the joints classification
Synovial joints- joints where the articulating bones are separated by a fluid filled joint cavity
Classification:
- Simple- 2 bones
- Complex- more than 2 bones
- Incongruent- bones do not fit well with each other
- Congruent- bones fit well to each other
Types:
- Plane- vertebrae
- Hinge- movement in one plane
- Pivot- ring movement
- Condylar- limited rotation
- Ellipsoidal- movement in two planes
- Saddle- round rotations with limitations
- Spheroidal- rotation in several planes
- The ligaments of the vertebral column
- Short ligaments
o Intraarcuale
o Intratransversa
o Intraspinous - Long ligaments
o Dorsal longitudinal
o Ventral longitudinal
o Nuchal
- The morphology of the atlantooccipital joint
Atlantooccipital joint- between occipital bone of skull and atlas
Features:
- Complex, congruent, ellipsoidal
- Articulation between occipital condyles and corresponding concavities of atlas
- Own joint capsule
- Supported by dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial membranes
- The morphology of the atlantoaxial joint
Atlantoaxial joint- between atlas and axis
Features:
- Simple, congruent, pivot
- Articulation between dens and fovea dentis
- Supported by dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial membranes
- The morphology of the shoulder joint
Shoulder joint- between scapula and humerus in the glenoid cavity
Features:
- Simple, incongruent, spheroidal
- Articulation between humeral head and glenoid cavity
- Glenoid cavity extended by glenoid lip
- Medial and lateral glenohumeral ligament
- Transverse humeral ligament
- Coracohumeral ligament
- The morphology of the elbow joint
Elbow joint- between humerus, radius, and ulna
Features:
- Complex, congruent, hinge
- Articulation between radial articular facet, trochlear notch, and the condyle of the humerus
- Lateral and medial collateral ligament
- Olecranon ligament
- The morphology of the hip joint
Sacro-iliac joint- between acetabulum of pelvis and head of femur
Features:
- Simple, incongruent, spheroidal
- Articulation between iliac tuberosity and with the sacrum
- Acetabular lip
- Intra-articular ligament limits movement
- Intracapsular ligament connects acetabulum to head of femur
- The morphology of the stifle joint
Stifle joint-
- Femorotibial joint- between femur and tibia
- Femoropatellar joint- between femur and patella
- Tibiofibular joint- between tibia and fibular
Features:
- Simple, incongruent
- Tibiofibular joint not present in cow due to fusion of tibia and fibular
- Medial and lateral collateral ligaments
- Cranial and caudal cruciate ligaments
- Cranial and caudal tibial ligaments of the menisci
- Femoropatellar and patellar ligament
- Articulations share a common synovial cavity in dogs
- The borders of the oral cavity (partition into oral vestibule and oral cavity proper), oral rim
- Divided into:
o Vestibule
● Labial vestibule (between teeth and lips)
● Buccal vestibule (between teeth and cheeks)
o Proper oral cavity (space between dental arcades)
- The name the major salivary glands and its orifice location
- Parotid
o Location
▪ Ventral to auricular cartilage in retromandibular fossa
▪ Opens into oral vestibule at top of small papilla opposite 3-5th cheek tooth
- Mandibular
o Location
▪ Close to angle of jaw, partially covered by parotid gland
▪ Drains into duct that passes ventral to mucosa of oral cavity floor, close to lingual ferniculum, opens with major sublingual duct on the sublingual caruncle
o Species differences
▪ Ru, Ca- bigger than parotid gland
▪ Ca- oval shaped, caudal to monostomatic gland, and between linguofacial and maxillary nerves
- Sublingual
o Monostomatic (major)
▪ Location
● Caudal compact gland with single draining duct
● Shares common opening with mandibular duct on sublingual caruncle
o Species differences
▪ Eq- monostomatic/major is absent
▪ Cow- conical papillae in fold of polystomatic
- The name of the minor salivary glands and its orifice location
Polystomatic (minor sublingual) glands
- Location
o Mucosa of lips, cheek, tongue, palate and sublingual oral floor
- Species differences:
o Ca- additional buccal gland medial to zygomatic arch, zygomatic gland
o Ru- additional middle group of buccal glands
- The vegetative innervation of the salivary glands
- Sympathetic
o Cranial cervical ganglion - Parasympathetic
o Cranial nerves 5 trigeminal, 7 facial, 9 glossopharyngeal
- The parts of the tooth, the differences between the arachidonic and hypselodontic teeth, teeth classification, deciduous and permanent dentition formula, (TYPES, MINERALIZED SUBSTANCES AND OTHER DEFINITIONS)
Types of teeth:
- Brachyodont- enamel envelops short exposed crown
o Ca, Su
- Hypsedont- high crowned teeth, large portion of crown held in reserve to be exposed gradually and account for attrition
o Eq, Ru
Mineralised substances:
- Enamel-
- Dentin- encloses pulp cavity, produced by odontoblasts
- Cement- softest, outermost layer
Other definitions:
- Anelodont- limited growth period
o Domestic species
- Elodent- grow throughout life
o Rodents - Haplodont- conical shaped crown covered in enamel e.g. canines
o Ca - Bunodont- coronal eminences
o Su - Secodont- eminence arranged in row
- Isognathic- upper dental arcade rests on lower dental arcade
o Su
- The parts of the tooth, the differences between the arachidonic and hypselodontic teeth, teeth classification, deciduous and permanent dentition formula, (SURFACES, PARTS)
Surfaces:
- Labial- towards lips
- Buccal- towards cheeks
- Lingual- adjacent to tongue
- Vestibule- towards vestibule of mouth
- Fascies contactus- adjacent to next rostral tooth in dental arch
- Occlusal surface- contacts the opposite arcade
- Masticatory- contacts adjacent arcade (row of teeth)
Parts:
- Crown- exposed part above gums
- Cusp- eminence of the crown
- Neck- at gumline, where enamel ends
- Root- below gum, in bony alveolus
- Dental cavity- contains pulp
- Gingivae- gums, highly vascularised mucosa
- Periodontal ligament- attaches crown to alveolar socket
- Apical foramen- allows passage of vessels and nerves through root canal
- The parts and aspects of the tongue
- Apex
- Corpus
- Root
- Frenulum linguae- where the body attaches to oral floor
- Median groove- marks the dorsal aspect
- Lyssa- rod shaped fibrous body that extends from tip to root on the ventral surface
o Ca only - Species differences
o Cow- transverse lingual fossa
o Eq- strengthened by cartilage in dorsal part
- The types of tongue papillae and its location
- Mechanical
o Filiform- rostral 2/3 tongue
o Conical- Fe over dorsal surface, Cow over base
o Marginal- tip and side of tongue, aids suckling in newborns - Gustatory- covered by taste buds
o Fungiform- rostral 2/3
o Vallate- caudal 1/3
o Foliate- in papillae parallel folds in either side of tongue midline
- The muscles of the tongue and partition and their origins
- Intrinsic muscle (m. lingualis proprius)- numerous fibre bundles:
o Superficial longitudinal
o Deep longitudinal
o Transverse
o Perpendicular - Extrinsic muscles
o Styloglossal
▪ Origin- stylohyoid
o Hyoglossal
▪ Origin- basihyoid
o Genioglossal
▪ Origin- incisive part of mandible - Mylohyoid muscle- suspends tongue between mandibular bodies, important for induction of deglutition
- The innervation of the tongue (motoric, sensoric, vegetative)
- Sympathetic
o Trigeminal- tactile, pain, thermal innervation for rostral 2/3
o Chorda tympani- mechanical and chemoreceptor innervation to tongue and taste fibres
o Glossopharyngeal- caudal 1/3 taste fibres
o Vagal- root of tongue
o Hypoglossal- tongue musculature, somatic motor - Parasympathetic
o Mandibular ganglion - Motoric
o Hypoglossal
- The sense (taste) innervation of the tongue
- Chorda tympani- rostral 2/3 taste fibres
- Glossopharyngeal- caudal 1/3 taste fibres
- Parts of the pharynx and its connections with neighbouring cavities (openings)
- Parts
o Nasopharynx- above soft palate
o Oropharynx- ventral compartment
o Laryngopharynx- caudal continuation - Openings
o Paired chonae
o Isthmus of the fauces
o Entrance into the auditory tubes
o Entrance into the larynx
o Entrance into the oesophagus
- The parts of the esophagus and the wall layers
Parts:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Abdominal
Wall layers of the oesophagus:
1. Mucosa
● Epithelium
● Lamina propria
● Muscular layer of mucous membrane
2. Submucosa
3. Muscular layer
● Circular muscular layer
● Longitudinal muscular layer
4. Adventitia – in the cervical part (fibrous CT)
Serosa – in the thoracic and abdominal parts (double layer of SS EP)
- Types of stomach and its classification in domestic mammals
- Simple stomach- one compartment
- Complex stomach- several compartments
- Glandular stomach- lined by glandular mucosa and simple columnar epithelium
- Composite stomach- area of glandular stomach covered by stratified squamous epithelium
- Species stomach types:
o Ca- simple, glandular
o Eq, Su- simple, composite
o Ru- complex, composite (rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum)
- The major structure of the dog’s stomach Surfaces curvatures
Divisions of the stomach:
- Cardia
- Fundus
- Body
- Pyloric portion
o Canalis pyloricus
o Atrum pyloricum
Surfaces:
- Facies parietalis- against diaphragm and liver
- Fascies visceralis- against the caudal adjacent organs
Curvatures:
- Curvatura ventriculi major- convex, with the ventral border of the stomach
- Curvatura minor- concave, the dorsal border from cardia to pylorus
o Marked by incisura angularis
- The structure of the rumen and reticulum
Rumen
- Extends from diaphragm to pelvic inlet
- Surfaces
o Parietal surface- adjacent to diaphragm, left lateral and ventral wall of abdomen
o Visceral surface- against liver, intestines, omasum, abomasum
Rumen is divided by several inflections – the pillars of the rumen:
● Ventral sac, uminal recessr
● Dorsal sac
● Cranial sac
● Caudodorsal blind sac
● Caudoventral blind sac
- Cranial part of dorsal sac forms cranial rumen sac called the atrium, it communicates with reticulum, food passes from rumen to reticulum or vice versa
- Division of rumen from reticulum is achieved by the ruminoreticular fold
Reticulum
- Closely related to rumen
- Smooth muscle of the ruminoreticular wall is arranged in two layers, outer thinner and inner thicker
- Ruminoreticular contractions mixes and redistributes stomach contents, plays role in regurgitation and re-mastication
- The structure of the omasus + species difference and abomasus
Omasum
- Lies within intrathoracic part of abdomen, right of ruminoreticular compartment
- Shape differences in species:
o Cow – bilaterally flattened sphere
o Cap, ov – bean shaped
- Reticulo-omasal opening- allows communication with reticulum
- Omaso-abomasal opening- allows communication with abomasum
- Omasal groove- connects the two openings
Abomasum
- Corresponds to simple stomach of domestic mammals
- Divided into fundus, body, pylorus
- Lined by glandular mucosa
- Contains gastric glands proper and pyloric glands
- The parts of the duodenum in domestic mammals. The bile and its excretory ways from liver to duodenum
Parts of duodenum:
- Cranial
- Cranial duodenal flexure
- Descending
- Transverse/caudal
- Caudal duodenal flexure
- Ascending
- Duodenojejunal flexure
Excretory ways from liver to duodenum:
- Bile capillaries unite to form interlobular ducts
- Interlobular ducts unite to form lobular ducts
- Extrahepatic bile ducts consist of hepatic ducts from the liver, cystic duct of the gall bladder, and bile duct of the duodenum
- The pancreas partition and its excretory ducts
- Divided into 3 parts:
o Body/ corpus
o Right lobe/ Lobus dexter
o Left lobe/ Lobus sinister - Pancreatic notch- where the portal vein passes in Ru
- Pancreatic duct: major duodenal papilla
o All species - Accessory duct: minor duodenal papilla
o Not in Ru or Su - Species differences:
o Ca, Ru portal vein notched
o Eq, Su portal vein perforated in pancreatic ring
o Ca pancreas is ‘V’ shaped with two limbs
- The structure of the horse’s cecum
- Parts:
o Apex- blind-ended
o Body- curve tapering
o Base - Ostium ileale- communicates with ileum, except dog
- Ostium caecoclicum- communicates with colon
- Taenia- visible bands on external surface in Eq
o Medial, lateral, dorsal, ventral - Plica ileocaecalis- iliocaecal fold
- Haustra- caecal wall ruffled in rows of sacculations
o Eq 4 rows
- The colon in the horse and cow Taenia turns and flexures
Divided into
- Ascending
- Transverse
- Descending
o Antimesenterical taenia
o Maesenterical taenia
Ru colon spiral shaped:
- Sigmoid flexure
- Centripetal turns
- Central flexure
- Centrifugal turns
Eq ascending colon arranged in U shaped loops:
- Right ventral colon
o Sternal flexure
- Left ventral colon
o Pelvic flexure
- Left dorsal colon
o Dorsal diaphragmatic flexure
- Right dorsal colon
- The liver lobes in the dog, horse, cow and pig
- Lobes- divided by fissures
o Left
▪ Lateral
▪ Medial
o Right
▪ Medial
▪ Lateral
o Caudate
▪ Caudate process
▪ Papillary process
o Quadrate - Lobe species differences:
o Ca all lobes, sub lobes and processes
o Su no papillary process
o Eq right lobe undivided, no papillary process
o Ru no fissures, left and right lobe undivided
- The name of the liver ligaments, surfaces and margins of liver
- Ligaments
o Falciform
▪ Extends between liver, diaphragm and ventral body
▪ Includes v. Umbilicalis which become ligamentum teres hepatis after birth
o Hepatoduodenale
▪ From hepatic porta to duodenum and stomach
o Hepaticogastricum
▪ From hepatic porta to duodenum and stomach
▪ Contain left and right gastric artery
o Triangular sinistrum
▪ Extends from dorsal part of the liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support
o Triangular dextrum
▪ Extends from dorsal part of the liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support
o Coronarium
▪ Surrounds caudal vena cava during passage from liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support - Surfaces
o Facies diaphragmatica
o Fascies visceralis- facing towards abdominal organs
▪ Marked by impressions of stomach, duodenum, right kidney and intestines - Margins
o Margo acutus- meeting of faces ventrolaterally
o Margo obtusus- meeting of faces dorsally
▪ Marked by impression of oesophagus
- The structures formed with peritoneum (ligaments, mesenteriums, folds, excavations)
Peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity
- Mesentery- e.g. mesoduodenum, mesojejunum, mesosalpinx, mesovarium
o M Double layer of peritoneum that supports organs, nerves and blood vessels
o Anchors organs to the abdominal wall - Peritoneal fold
o Part of the peritoneum that is raised from the abdominal wall by the underlying blood vessels and ducts
o Each fold forms a pouch-like peritoneal recess. Some peritoneal folds are called peritoneal ligaments when they connect an organ to the abdominal wall or to another organ - Omentum
o Fat over the intestines for protection, composed of double layer of peritoneum
o Greater omentum
▪ Gastrophrenic ligament
▪ Gastrosplenic ligament
▪ Gastrocolic ligament
o Lesser omentum
▪ Hepatogastric ligament
▪ Hepatoduodenal ligament
- The blood supply of the liver (vasa private and vasa publica, rete mirabile veno-venosum)
- Hepatic artery- nutritional supply of oxygenated blood
- Portal vein- functional supply of blood to extract metabolites
o Collects blood from stomach, pancreas, intestines, spleen - Central veins- fuse into sublobular veins and empties deoxygenated blood into caudal vena cava
- The morphology of the spleen (surfaces, extremities and margins, hilus)
Structure:
- Located in peritoneum (except Ru)
- Ligaments:
o Gastrosplenic- attaches to stomach
o Nephrosplenic- attaches to kidney in Eq - Surfaces:
o Diaphragmatic
o Visceral- marked by hilus - Shape in each species:
o Eq- falciform
o Su- tongue shaped
o Ca- boot shaped
o Small Ru- leaf shaped
o Cow- wide strap
Hilus- where vessels and nerves enter and leave the spleen
- The small intestine morphology in domestic mammals
- Duodenum
o Parts:
▪ Cranial
▪ Cranial duodenal flexure
▪ Descending
▪ Transverse/caudal
▪ Caudal duodenal flexure
▪ Ascending
▪ Duodenojejunal flexure
o Duodenocolic fold- marks cranial border
o Hepatoduodenal ligament- connects to liver - Jejunum
o Mesojejunum - Ileum
o Plica ileocaecalis- iliocaecal fold
- The lobes of the lung in the dog, cow, horse and pig
- The external structure of the lungs (surfaces, margins, ends, impressions)
- Faces of the lungs
o Facies costalis
o Facies mediastinalis
o Facies diaphragmatica - Margins of the lung
o Margo dorsalis seu obtusus- where the mediastinal and costal surfaces meet dorsally
o Margo ventralis seu acutus- where the mediastinal and costal surfaces meet ventrally, forms cardiac notch
o Margo basalis- where the diaphragmatic and costal surfaces meet
o Margo mediastinalis- where the diaphragmatic and mediastinal surfaces meet - Notches of the lungs
o Incisura cardiaca- allows the heart to come into close contact with the lateral wall of the lungs
- The division pattern of the respiratory ways (arbor bronchalis, arbor alveolaris, acini pulmonales)
Respiratory passage ways:
- Principal bronchi
- Lobar bronchi
o Cranial lobar
o Middle lobar
o Caudal lobar
o Accessory lobar
- Segmental bronchi
- Subsegmental bronchi
- True and terminal bronchi
Sites of gaseous exchange within the lungs are:
- Respiratory bronchiole
o Secondary bronchioles
o Tertiary bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs
- Pulmonary alveoles
o Lined by type I and II pneumocytes
- The types of kidneys in domestic mammals
- Lobes
o Unilobular- single renal papilla
▪ Ca, Eq, small Ru
o Multilobulate- multiple renal papilla
▪ Su smooth, cow lobated surface
- The external structure of the kidney (surfaces, margins and ends, hilus)
- Shape in different species
o Ca, Ru bean shaped
o Cow irregular oval
o Su flat
o Eq right is heart shaped, left is triangular - Surfaces
o Dorsal
o Ventral - Borders
o Lateral
o Medial- indented to form hilus - Poles
o Cranial
o Caudal
Hilus- where vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney
- The blood supply of the kidney (rete mirabile arterio-arteriosum)
- A. Renialis (branch of abdominal aorta)
o Divides into interlobar arteries at the hilus > arcuate arteries > interlobular arteries - Caudal vena cava
o Divides into renal vein > interlobar veins > arcuate veins > interlobular veins
- The parts of the ureter and its orifices, trigonum vesicae urinariae
- Connects urinary system with pelvic cavity
- Ends at dorsolateral surface of bladder in lateral ligament- openings create trigonum vesicae urinariae
- Parts
o Abdominal
o Pelvic- Enters broad uterine ligament in females, and mesoductus deferens in males - Structure
o External adventitia
o Middle muscularis
o Internal mucosa - Species differences
o Eq proximal ureter wall has glandulae uretericae
- The parts of the urinary bladder and the wall structure, ligaments of urinary bladder
- Divided into
o Cranial vertex/ apex
o Corpus vesicae/ body
o Cervix vesicae/ neck - Ligaments
o Contain remnants of umbilical artery
o Lateral left and right ligament- border between pubovesical and vesicogenital excavation
o Median ligament- divides pubovesical excavation into left and right part - Bladder wall layers
o Mucosa
o Submucosa
o Muscle
▪ Outer longitudinal
▪ Middle circular
▪ Inner longitudinal
o Covered in peritoneum- except caudal part of neck
- The parts of the epididymis and three parts of the spermatic chord (the inguinal canal construction and components of the spermatic chord)
- Epididymis divided into
o Head
▪ Attached to testicular capsule
▪ Receives efferent ducts of testis
o Body
▪ Formed by convoluted ducts
o Tail
▪ Continuation of epididymal duct
▪ Attaches to the testis caudally by the proper ligament of the testis
▪ Attaches to the vaginal process by the ligament of the tail of the epididymis
▪ Continues as the ductus deferens - Deferent duct/spermatic cord parts
o Scrotal- direct continuation of duct/ tail of epididymis
o Inguinal- enters the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal
o Abdominal- forms loop within peritoneum fold, ampulla at terminal end
o Perforates the prostate gland to open in the proximal part of the urethra at the seminal hillock
o Eq, Ru the deferens duct is joined by the excretory duct - Inguinal canal construction
o Deep inguinal ring- internal opening of inguinal canal
▪ Abdominal branch of internal oblique abdominal muscle
o Superficial inguinal ring- external opening of inguinal canal
▪ Medial branch of external oblique abdominal muscle
▪ Lateral branch of external oblique abdominal muscle
Contains vaginal process, including spermatic cord and cremaster muscle
Allows passage of external pudendal artery and vein, and genitofemoral nerve
- The external structure of the ovary in the domestic animals
Structure
- Medulla
o Loose, more vascular area in the centre
- Parenchymatous zone/cortex
o Dense shell
o Bounded by albugineous tunic below peritoneum
- Eq
o Structure of ovary is reversed, with the medulla being outside layer
o Parenchymatous zone reaches the ovary at the ovulation fossa
Surfaces:
- Medial
- Lateral
- The broad ligament of the uterus (parts and bursa ovarica walls)
- Uterine ligaments
o Broad- mesovarium suspends ovaries, mesosalpinx suspends uterine tubes and uterus
▪ Suspensory
● Ca, Su
▪ Proper
● Ca, Su
o Round- passes through inguinal canal, enclosed by vaginal process
▪ Dog - Ovarian bursa- surrounds entire ovary, creating a small cavity made up of
o Mesovarium- suspends ovaries and forms cranial part of broad ligament
o Mesosalpinx- suspends uterine tubes and forms cranial part of broad ligament
o Mesometrium- suspends uterus
- The parts of the tuba uterine and the types of the uterus in domestic animals
Uterine tube- paired tubes receive and transport oocytes to uterus
- Tubes suspended by mesosalpinx
o Connects peritoneal cavity with uterine cavity - Parts
o Infundibulum- receives oocyte after ovulation
o Fimbria- processes of infundibulum that facilitate oocyte movement
o Ampulla- location of fertilisation
o Isthmus- apex of the horn of the uterus, distal part of tube
o Uterine ostium- opening into uterine horn - Types of uteruses
o Duplex- uterus consists of paired tubes which open separately into vagina
▪ Rodents
o Simplex- uterine tubes meet in uterus
● Simplex bicornis subseptus- separate horns
o Ca, Su, Ru
● Simplex bicornis nonseptus- no division between horns
o Eq
▪ Characterised by
● Cervix
● Body
● Paired horns
- The parts of the uterus and the structure of the wall in the uterus
- Parts
o Paired horns
o Body
o Cervix - Layers
o Endometrium
o Myometrium
▪ External longitudinal layer
▪ Thicker inner circular layer
o Perimetrium
▪ Serous membrane covering uterus - Uterine caruncles- attachment site of cotyledons
- Cotyledons- embryonic membrane during pregnancy
- Placentome- foetal side of attachment site
- Structure of the uterine cervix in domestic mammals
- Cervical canal- lumen of the cervix
o Formed by and occluded by mucosal folds
▪ Longitudinal in Eq and Ca
▪ Circular in Su - Internal uterine ostium- cranial opening into uterus
- External uterine ostium- caudal opening into vagina
- The border between vagina and vestibule of the vagina, and the vulva morphology
Vagina
- Cranial part of copulatory organ
Vestibule of vagina
- Caudal part of copulatory organ
Suburethral diverticulum- ventral opening with urethra into vagina
External urethral orifice- border between vestibule and vagina
Vulva
- Formed by two labia meeting at dorsal and ventral commissures
- Parts
o Corpus
o Glans clitoris
▪ Lies within fossa clitoridis
- The parts of the male and female urethra and its orifice location
- Female
o Parts
▪ Mucous membrane
▪ Urethral muscle layer
o Passes obliquely through vagina wall, opens with external urethral opening between vagina and vestibule
o Species differences
▪ Eq short and wide
▪ Dog long, opens on elevation flanked by 2 grooves
▪ Cow, Su urethralis muscle encloses suburethral diverticulum which opens with urethra into vagina - Male
o Parts
▪ Pelvic part
● Preprostatic portion- internal opening to seminal hillock
● Prostatic portion- joined by defferent and vesicular ducts, passes through prostate gland
▪ Penile part
- The structure of the testis (mesorchium, mesoductus deferens and mesofuniculus)
- Mesorchium
o Connects testes to abdominal wall - Mesoductus deferens
o Encloses deferens duct - Mesofuniculus
o Membrane between spermatic cord and wall of vaginal process
- The phases of the descendus testis and the types of abdominal hernias
Phases of testes descent:
- The testis originate at the gonadal primordium
- Phase 1
o Dependent on gubernaculum
o Gubernaculum increases in size dilating the inguinal canal
- Phase 2
o Gubernaculum regresses moving the testis to within the vaginal process
o Draws testes towards inguinal region
Types of hernia:
- Inguinal
o Intestine or omentum herniates into vaginal process
- Umbilical
o Intestine herniates into umbilical ring
- Morphology of penis
- Penis is composed of following divisions/subdivisions
o Root of penis
▪ Crura of the penis
▪ Unpaired bulb of penis
o Body of penis
▪ Cavernous body
▪ Spongy body
o Glans of penis
▪ Long distal part
▪ Expanded proximal part
▪ Bulbus glandis
▪ Os penis
● Ca - Glans of penis carries external opening of urethra
o Except Ru, free urethral process prolongs the urethra beyond glans - Muscles of penis
o Paired ischiocavernous muscle
o Bulbospongious muscle
o Paired retractor penis muscle - Two types of penis:
o Fibroelastic type
▪ Ru, Su
o Musculocavernous type
▪ Eq, Ca
- The layers of scrotum and corresponding layers of abdominal wall
- External skin
- Fibromuscular subcutaneous layer
- Double-layered external spermatic fascia
- Cremaster muscle
- The blood vessels ending in the right atrium
- Cranial vena cava
- Caudal vena cava
- Coronary sinus
- The valves of the heart (number of cusps, chordae tendineae and mm. papillares)
Valves:
- Right atrioventricular valve- tricuspid
o Angular
o Parietal
o Septal
- Left atrioventricular valve- bicuspid/ mitral valve
o Parietal
o Septal
- Aortic valve- semilunar
- Pulmonary trunk valve- semilunar
Left papillary muscles:
- Subauricularis
- Subatrialis
Right papillary muscles:
- Anterior
- Posterior
- Septal
Chordae tendinae- fibrous heart strings connecting papillary muscles to valves
- The scheme of the pulmonary (lesser) circulation
- Blood enters right atrium
- Moves into right ventricle
- Pulmonary trunk and artery allows blood to be oxygenated at the lungs
- Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium
- Oxygenated blood in the left atrium
- Aortic arch in the dog, horse, pig and cow
- Botall’s duct (ductus arteriosus), ductus venosus (ductus Aranti) and foramen ovale, the construction of the foetal blood circulation)
Ductus venosus:
- Foetal blood vessel connecting umbilical vein through the liver to caudal vena cava
- Protects the liver
- Blood flow regulated by sphincter mechanism (when closed, blood goes to liver)
Ductus arteriosus:
- Foetal blood vessel connecting the pulmonary trunk to descending aorta
- Protects lungs from having overflow of blood
Foramen Ovale:
- Opening that connects atria ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve:
- Protects developing lungs
- Prevents high pressure blood exiting right atria into pulmonary trunk over collapsed lung
- Septum secundum closes the foramen ovale at birth
Construction of foetal blood circulation:
- During gastrulation, cells of primary heart field are specified
- Time of differentiation determines first and second heart field
- Cardiac precursor cells differentiate and the two sides of the heart zip together to form a heart tube, creating a primitive inflow tract
- Heart is essentially upside down, early looping flips it
- Late looping divides atria, creating septum primum
- Left and right ventricle and aortic and pulmonary circulations are divided to give four chambers
- Mesenchymal cells give rise to valve tissue
- Neural crest cells separate outflow tract
- The visceral and parietal branches of the thoracic aorta
Parietal branches:
- A. phrenica cranialis (Eq)
- Aa. intercostales dorsales
Visceral branches:
- A. Bronchoesophageal
- The unpaired visceral blood vessels of the abdominal aorta organs supplied
- A. coelica
o Supplies pancreas, stomach - A. Mesenterica cranialis
o Supplies pancreas, distal duodenum to cranial rectum - A. Mesenterica caudalis
o Supplies distal duodenum to cranial rectum
- The major branches of a. coeliaca and supplied structures
- A. splenica
o Supplies spleen, stomach - A. hepatica
o Supplies liver, stomach - A. gastric sinister
o Supplies stomach
- The paired visceral blood vessels of the abdominal aorta and supplied organ
- A. Suprarenalis
o Supplies adrenals - A. Renalis
o Supplies kidneys - A. Testicularis/ overica
o Supplies testes or ovaries
- The nerves of the brachial plexus and its function
Function- gives rise to the nerves that innervate the muscles and skin of the thoracic limb, parts of the shoulder, girdle musculature, and parts of the abdomen and thoracic wall
- The nerves of the lumbosacral plexus and its function
Function- gives rise to the nerves that innervate the skin and muscle of the pelvic limb, and also the pelvis
- Sensoric and motoric cranial nerves (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
- Facial nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Facial nerve- Cranial Nerve 7
- Function
o Innervates stapes, eyelid muscles, lips to open mouth
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Internal acoustic meatus
o Facial canal
- General partition
o Major petrosal
o Stapedial
o Chorda tympani
- Glossopharyngeal nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Glossopharyngeal nerve- Cranial Nerve 9
- Function
o Innervates root of tongue, dilators of pharynx, parotid gland
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Carotid sinus
o Guttural pouch (Eq)
- General partition
o Pharyngeal
o Lingual
- Trigeminius nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Trigeminal nerve- Cranial Nerve 5
- Function
o Innervates masticatory muscles
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Round foramen
o Orbital fissure
- General partition
o Ophthalmic
o Maxillary
o Mandibular
- The general construction of sympathetic nervous system (nucleus, sympathetic trunk, main branches, plexuses and ganglions, prevertebral trunk)
- The general construction of parasympathetic nervous system (parasympathetic nucleuses and ganglions of the 3th, 7th, 9th and 10th cranial nerves, nucleus intermediomedialis and nn. pelvini)
- Nervus vagus morphology (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function
Vagus nerve- Cranial Nerve 10
- Function
o Parasympathetic nerve
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Jugular foramen
- General partition
o Ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve form ventral vagal trunk
▪ Rami hepatici
▪ Rami gastrici parietales
o Dorsal branches of left and right vagal nerve form dorsal vagal trunk
▪ Rami coeliaci
▪ Rami gastrici viscerales
- The definition of the nervous segment and the spinal nerve construction and partition
Nervous segment- segmented ganglia giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature
Spinal nerve- dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord unite in the vertebral canal
Partition of spinal nerves:
Number of spinal nerves in each segment corresponds to the number of vertebrae
- The spinal chord (grey and white substance, types of neurons, parts of spinal chord, grooves of spinal chord, cerebrospinal fluid cavities morphology and junctions)
Grey matter- cell bodies and process of neurons and glial cells, butterfly or H shaped
White matter- myelinated ascending and descending nerve fibres, myelinated sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes which creates the white colour
Types of neurons in the spinal cord:
- Interneurons
- Efferent
Parts of spinal cord:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Caudal
Grooves of spinal cord:
- Dorsal
- Ventral
- Median fissure
Cerebrospinal fluid cavities:
- Morphology
o 2 lateral ventricles
o 3rd ventricle
o 4th ventricle
- Junctions
o Mesencephalic aqueduct
▪ Canal that joins the 3rd to the 4th ventricle
- The skeletal muscle general morphology, types and accessory muscles organs
- Morphology
o Muscle belly
o Tendons of origin
o Tendons of insertion - Types
o Red- sarcoplasm contains less myofilaments so can store more myoglobin, appearing darker
o White- sarcoplasm contains more myofilaments so stores less myoglobin and appears pale - Accessory muscle organs
o Fascia
o Bursae (synovial bursae)
o Tendon sheaths
- The diaphragm morphology, blood vessels and innervation
Diaphragm:
- Function
o Extends the thorax, depresses costal cartilage
- Innervation
o nn. phrenici
- Origin
o Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of ribs 7-12
- Insertion
o Central tendon of diaphragm
- Openings
o Oesophageal hiatus
▪ Oesophagus
▪ Vagal nerve
▪ Oesophageal vessels- dorsal and ventral vagal trunks
o Aortic hiatus
▪ Aorta ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve:
▪ Azygos vein
▪ Thoracic duct
o Caval foramen
▪ Caudal vena cava
- The horse’s stay apparatus (parts and function)
Passive stay- system of muscles, tendons and ligaments evolved to support and lock the limbs in order to conserve energy
Parts:
- Deep and superficial digital flexor tendon- long tendons insert into phalanges for stability
- Suspensory ligament- prevents fetlock overextension
- Stifle and tibiotarsal joint- cannot move independently of one another
- Proximal sesamoid bones and distal sesamoidean ligament- prevent overextension by suspensory apparatus
- Muscular adaptations- lack of muscular tissue so cannot contract or change length, and increased collagen content
o Vastus medius quadricep muscle- contracts slightly to allow mechanism but requires very little muscle exertion
- Morphology of the hoof (bones, soft tissues)
Bones:
- Distal part of middle phalanx
- Distal interpharyngeal joint
- Distal phalanx
- Lateral and medial hoof cartilage
- Distal sesamoid/ navicular
- Navicular bursa
Segments:
- Perioplic- band few mms distal to hairy skin
- Coronary- band distal to perioplic band
- Wall- internal segment visible as a white line on the Surface of the sole
Hoof wall divided into:
- Toe
- Sides/ quarters
- Heel
- Bars
Base/ distal surface divided into:
- Solear margin
- Sole- space between wall and frog
- Frog- shock absorbing structure
- Bulb of heel- cushion underlying frog
- Udder morphology
Small ruminant:
- 2 mammary complexes
o Each complex has a unit with a principal teat
Cow:
- 4 mammary complexes
o Each complex has a unit with a principal teat
- Suspended from inguinal region by suspensory apparatus
- Intermammary groove- division into right and left halves
Horse:
- 1 mammary complex
o 2 units opening on the teat with 2 separate openings
Blood supply:
- External pudendal artery- Cranial and caudal mammary artery branches
- External pudendal vein
Lymphatics:
- Iliofemoral and medial iliac lymph nodes
- General partition of brain
- Forebrain- Prosencephelon
o Telencephalon
o Diencephalon - Midbrain- Mesencephalon
o Mesencephalon - Hindbrain- Rhombencephelon
o Metencephalon
▪ Pons
▪ Cerebellum
o Myelencephalon
▪ Medulla oblongata
o layer of compact bone
o Medullary cavity
