anatomy and physiology of clinical research part 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning objectives

A

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Understand the different types of variables in a clinical study / trial.

Understand the concept of hypothesis testing and sample size effects and how they are applied in a clinical study / trial.

Distinguish between accuracy and precision, and ways to improve accuracy and precision respectively.

Understand how statistical issues are encountered in a clinical study / trial.

Distinguish statistical significance from biological significance.

Appreciate and understand the applications of the abovementioned points to real-world scenarios.

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2
Q

2 types of variables

A

continuous variable and categorical variable

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3
Q

Continuous variable

A

quantitative variable which are interval and ratio

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4
Q

Categorical variable

A

qualitative variable which are nominal, dichotomous and ordinal

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5
Q

Interval (example of continuous variable)

A

Quantified on infinite scale & have a numerical value.

E.g. temperature scale

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6
Q

Ratio (example of continuous variable)

A

Interval variables but with added condition that zero of the measurement indicates that there is none of the variable
E.g. Height, weight, distance, number of cigarettes.

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7
Q

What is interval

A

These are variables which are able to be quantified on an infinite scale and which have a numerical value e.g. temperature, Fahrenheit

The scale can take on both positive and negative values

It is assumed that the intervals keep the same importance throughout the scale

This allows us not only to rank order the items that are measured but also to quantify and compare the magnitudes of differences between them

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8
Q

What is ratio

A

These are interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 of the measurement indicates that there is none of the variable. Hence temperature is not a ratio variable as 0 does not indicate that there is no temperature.

The name ratio reflects that you can use the ratio of measurements e.g. distance of 10 m is twice the distance of 5 m

Examples of ratio variables include height, weight, distance, number of cigarettes

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9
Q

What is nominal variable

A

These are variables that have 2 or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order
E.g. Blood type for human, there are 4 distinct groups, A, B, AB and O. So blood type is a nominal variable with 4 categories

They tend to have a qualitative and absolute character that makes them very straight forward to measure e.g. 35 people have blood type O

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10
Q

What is dichotomous variable

A

These are nominal variables which have only TWO categories or levels
E.g. gender, we would most likely categorize someone as “male” or “female”
E.g. “Dead” or “Alive”
E.g. do you own a mobile phone? Or do you have blood type O? the answer would be either a “Yes” or “No”

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11
Q

What is ordinal variable

A

These are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only that the categories can also be ordered or ranked.

E.g. how often do you consume soya milk? The answer could be “not at all”, “occasionally”, “very frequently”
E.g. how severe is the pain associated with a heart attack? The answer could be “mild”, “moderate” or “severe”

In both examples, you have 3 categories and able to rank them from in the first case, least positive to the most positive and in the second example from the most positive to the least positive

Although we can rank the levels or categories, which gives ordinal variables an advantage over the nominal variables, they do not specify a numerical or uniform difference between one category and the next

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12
Q

Example of ordinal variable : Temperature in DC or F

A

Zero is an arbitrary point on the scale – it has a value or form of any degree

Zero on the scale does not mean there is no temperature

The difference between -1 and 1 is the same as the difference between 2 and 4 or the difference between 50 – 60 is the same as the difference between 77 – 78

Temperature in Kelvin where zero is an absolute zero – zero is meaningful.

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13
Q

what kind of variable is temperature

A

continuous variable (interval)

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14
Q

what kind of variable is weight

A

continuous variable (weight)

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15
Q

what kind of variable is gender

A

categorical variable (dichotomous)

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16
Q

what kind of variable is stage of cancer

A

continuous variable (ordinal)

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17
Q

what kind of variable is eye color

A

continuous variable (nominal)

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18
Q

what kind of variable is blood type

A

continuous variable (nominal)

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19
Q

what kind of variable is education level

A

continuous variable (ordinal)

20
Q

what kind of variable is satisfaction level

A

continuous variable (ordinal)

21
Q

what kind of variable is birth weight

A

continuous variable (dichotomous)

22
Q

what kind of variable is bubble tea consumption

A

continuous variable (ordinal)

23
Q

BP in mmHG

A

continuous

24
Q

normotensive vs hypertensive

A

categorical - dichotomous

25
Q

low, normotensive, moderately hypertensive, severely hypertensive

A

ordinal

26
Q

Advantages of using continuous (ordinal variables)

A

A good general rule is to prefer continuous variables, because the additional information they contain improves statistical efficiency

The continuous variable contains more information and the result is a study with more power and might result in the need of a smaller sample size.

Even when categorical data is more meaningful, however it is still better to collect data as continuous variables as this would leave the analytical option open

27
Q

what is precision

A

The precision of a variable is the degree to which it is reproducible, with nearly the same value each time it is measured.

Precision has a very important influence on the power of a study (the ability of a study to detect a difference that is real), the more precise the measurement, the greater the statistical power at a given sample size to estimate mean values and to test hypothesis (proposed explanation for a phenomenon)

This is a function of random error, the greater the error, the less precise the measurement

//

Precision represents how close different sample measurements you take are to one another, and accuracy represents how close those sample measurements are to the true measurement

//

Precision has a very important influence on the power of a study (the ability of a study to detect a difference that is real)

The more precise the measurement, the greater the statistical power at a given sample size to estimate mean values and to test hypothesis (proposed explanation for a phenomenon)

This is a function of random error, the greater the error, the less precise the measurement

28
Q

what is accuracy

A

The accuracy of a variable is the degree to which it actually represents what it is intended to represent.

This has an important influence on the validity of the study (the degree to which the observed findings lead to the correct inferences about phenomena taking place in the study sample and in the universe)

Accuracy is a function of systematic error (bias), the greater the error, the less accurate the variable. The three main classes of measurement error noted for precision each have their counterparts here.

//

Accuracy is a function of systematic error (bias), the greater the error, the less accurate the variable. The three main classes of measurement error noted for precision each have their counterparts here.
Observer bias – is a distortion, conscious or unconscious, in the perception or reporting of the measurement by the observer. It may represent systematic errors in the way an instrument is operated e.g. the tendency to round down measurements, or in the way an interview is carried out e.g. the use of leading questions etc.
Instrument bias – this can result from a faulty function of a mechanical instrument. A scale that is not calibrated recently may have drifted downward, producing consistently low BW readings
Subject bias – is a distortion of the measurement by the study subject, e.g. reporting an event. Patients with lung cancer who believe that the number of cigarettes smoked per day is the cause of the disease would exaggerate the number of cigarettes they smoke per day
The accuracy of a measurement is best assessed by comparing it, when possible to a “gold standard”. This is a reference technique that is considered to be accurate.

29
Q

Illustration of accuracy

A

Accuracy can be illustrated by throwing the darts onto the centre of the target (the true value).

30
Q

illustration of precision

A

Precision can be illustrated by throwing the darts closer to each other.

31
Q

the 3 sources of random errors

A

Observer variability – variability in the measurement that is due to the observer and includes aspects such as skill in using a mechanical instrument, methods of asking questions and conducting interviews etc.

Instrument variability – variability in the measurement due to changing environmental factors e.g. temperature, aging mechanical components, different reagent, different brand etc.

Subject variability – intrinsic biologic variability in the study subjects due things such as mood, time of last medication, food intake etc.

32
Q

what are random errors

A

Random errors are errors that affect the precision of a measurement. Random errors are two-sided errors, because, in the absence of other types of errors, repeated measurements yield results that fluctuate above and below the true or accepted value.

Measurements subject to random errors differ from each other due to random, unpredictable variations in the measurement process.

33
Q

5 ways to improve precision

A
  1. standardizing measurement methods - written directions and guidelines, creating SOP,
  2. training and certifying observers - improve the consistency of measurements technique
  3. refining instruments - mechanical and electronical instruments
  4. automating instrument - the influence of random error is reduced by repeating the measurements and using the mean of 2 or more readings
34
Q

Standardizing the measurement methods

A

All the study protocols should include operational definitions (specific instructions for making the measurements)

This includes written directions on how to prepare the environment and the subject, how to carry out and record the interview etc.

The operational manual is essential for large and complex studies and recommended for smaller ones.
Specific written guidelines for making each measurement will help the observer’s performance and ensure uniformity over the duration of the study.
This will also serve as the basis for describing the methods when the results are published

35
Q

Training and Certifying the Observers

A

Training will improve the consistency of measurement techniques especially when several observers are involved.

It is often desirable to design a formal test of the mastery of techniques specified in the operations manual and to certify that observers have achieved the prescribed level of performance

36
Q

Refining the instruments

A

Mechanical and electronic instruments can be engineered to reduce variability

Questionnaires and interviews can also be written in a certain style/manner to avoid potential ambiguities and to increase clarity

37
Q

Automating the instruments

A

The use of automated mechanical devices and self-response questionnaires can reduce observer variability by eliminating variations in the way human observers make measurements

38
Q

Repetition

A

The influence of random error from any source is reduced by repeating the measurement and using the mean of the two or more readings.

Precision will be substantially increased by this strategy

The limitation being the added cost and practical difficulties of repeating the measurements

39
Q

Making Unobtrusive Measurements

A

It is sometimes possible to design measurements that the subjects are not aware of, thereby eliminating the possibility that they will consciously bias the variable.

Example: A study on healthy eating patterns for school children, could measure the number of candy bar wrappers in the trash rather than questioning each child on the number of candy he or she consumes

40
Q

Calibrating the instruments

A

The accuracy of many instruments, especially those that are mechanical or electrical can be increased by periodic calibration using a gold standard

41
Q

Blinding

A

This is intended to ensure that subjective assessments and decisions are not affected by knowledge of treatment assigned.

Different groups should be treated and observed in the same way during a trial

Clinical trials are often “double blinded” to ensure that subject and investigators (as well as investigator staff) involved in the treatment or clinical evaluation of subjects are unaware of the subject’s assigned treatment.

Blinding is intended to minimize the potential biases resulting from differences in management, treatment or assessment of patients or interpretation of results that could arise as a result of subject or investigator knowledge of assigned treatment

Examples include
Subjects on active drug might report more favorable outcomes, because they expect a benefit or might be more likely to stay in a study if they knew they were on active drug

Observers might be less likely to identify and report treatment responses in a non-treatment group or might be more sensitive to a favorable outcome or adverse event in patients receiving active drug

42
Q

Hypothesis testing

A

Research hypothesis is a specific version of the research question that summarizes the main elements of the study

Hypothesis testing is needed for studies that will use test of statistical significance to compare findings among groups
Most observational studies
ALL experimental research questions involved in making comparisons

Stating the hypothesis in advance would help the researcher and research efforts focused on the primary objective

43
Q

Null hypothesis

A

States that there is NO association between the predictor and outcome variables in the population

44
Q

Alternative hypothesis

A

The proposition that there is an association between predictor and outcome variable

45
Q

Statistical significance

A

Statistical significance means that there is a good chance that we are right in finding that a relationship exists between two variables.

But statistical significance is not the same as practical significance. We can have a statistically significant finding, but the implications of that finding may have no practical application. The researcher must always examine both the statistical and the practical significance of any research finding.

46
Q

A one-sided hypothesis

A

Specifies the direction of the association between the predictor and outcome variable.

A one sided hypothesis may be appropriate when there is a very strong evidence from prior studies that an association is unlikely to occur in one of the two directions

47
Q

A two-sided hypothesis

A

States only that an association exists and does not specify the direction.

This is usually the case as both sides of the alternate hypothesis (i.e. greater or lesser) are interesting and investigators would want to publish results no matter which direction is observed