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Osteopathy > Anatomy and physiology > Flashcards

Anatomy and physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Types of muscle

A
  1. Skeletal
  2. Cardiac
  3. Smooth
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2
Q

Muscles responsible for inhalation

A
  1. Sternocleidomastoid
  2. Scalenes (anterior, middle and posterior)
  3. External intercostals
  4. Diaphragm
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3
Q

Muscles responsible for exhalation

A
  1. Internal intercostals
  2. Rectus abdominis
  3. Internal and external obliques
  4. Transversus abdominus
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4
Q

Types of fascia

A
  1. Superficial -Close to the skin and surface of body
  2. Deep -Surrounds the muscles, bones, nerves, periosteum, muscle sheath (almost everywhere)
  3. Visceral (AKA Parietal or Subserous) -Suspends the organs; under and in the linings of cavities
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5
Q

Types of cartilage

A
  1. Elastic (e.g. external ear, auditory canal, epiglottis)
  2. Hyaline (e.g. costocartilages, joint surfaces)
  3. Fibrocartilage (e.g. pubic symphysis, menisci intervertebral disc)
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6
Q

Composition of blood

A

Red blood cells (45%)
-Transports oxygen to the organ and takes away CO2

White blood cells and platelets (<1%)

  • White blood cells - immunological
  • Platelets - blood clotting

Plasma (55%)
-transport of nutrients to organs

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7
Q

General properties of fascia

A
  1. Viscosity
  2. Elasticity
  3. Plasticity
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8
Q

Dendrites

A

Fingers that detect the neurotransmitters; cause the action potential which runs to the axon

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9
Q

Axon

A

Myelinated and unmyelinated

-Myelin is an insulator and allows the neurotransmitter to run faster and farther

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10
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Boosts the signal of the action potential; between the myelin sheath; saltatory conduction

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11
Q

Axon terminals

A

Releases neurotransmitters

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12
Q

Define viscosity

A
  • Measure of the rate of deformation of any material under load
  • Capability possessed by a solid of yielding continually under stress
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13
Q

Define elasticity

A

Ability of strained body/tissue to recover its shape after deformation

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14
Q

Define plasticity

A

Ability to retain a shape attained by deformation

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15
Q

Types of connective tissue

A
  1. Loose (aka areolar tissue)

2. Dense (regular and irregular)

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16
Q

Functions of bone

A
  1. Mechanical
  2. Synthesis (Immunological)
  3. Metabolic
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17
Q

Mechanical functions of bone

A
  1. Sound transduction
  2. Protection
  3. Movement
  4. Structure
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18
Q

Synthesis (immunological) function of bone

A

Production of blood

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19
Q

Metabolic functions of bone

A
  1. Storage of minerals (e.g. calcium)
  2. Growth factor storage
  3. pH balance
  4. Fat storage
  5. Endocrine (e.g. insulin)
  6. Detoxification (e.g. store heavy metals)
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20
Q

Types of bones

A
  1. Long bones
  2. Short bones
  3. Flat bones
  4. Sesamoid bones
  5. Irregular bones
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21
Q

Skeletal muscle function

A
  • Produce movement
  • Store energy
  • Protection
  • Support framework of the body
  • Maintain body temperature
  • Assist in blood and lymph flow
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22
Q

Fascia and connective tissue makes up ______% of body’s total weight

A

16%

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23
Q

Fascia and connective tissue makes up _____% of body’s total water content

A

25%

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24
Q

Cellular components of fascia

A
  1. Fibroblasts – manufacture proteins
  2. Mast cells – release histamine
  3. Histiocytes – macrophages or immune cells
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25
Q

Subcellular components of fascia

A
  1. Collagen (reticular fibers)
  2. Elastic fibers – elasticity properties
  3. GAGs – sugar protein in ground substance
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26
Q

Three primary functions of fascia

A
  1. Mechanical:
    • Support (vascular and structural)
    • Compartmentalization
    • Conduit: somatic-autonomic neurovascular
  2. Metabolic
    • Diffusion
    • Energy storage
  3. Immunology
    • Lines of defence: lymphoid tissue
    • Barrier: compartments
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27
Q

Compact bone

A
  • Stronger

- Found in the shaft of the bone

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28
Q

Spongy bone

A
  • Found at the ends of the bones
  • Has more holes/ open space which is filled up with extracellular fluid
  • Extracting calcium from spongy bone which is at the end of the bone
  • Has more surface area – where most of the remodelling is taking place, calcium is there
  • Spongy bone is A LOT WEAKER; LESS STRENGTH THAN COMPACT BONE
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29
Q

Haversian canals

A

Runs up and down the length of bones – small nerve artery and vein run up this

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30
Q

Volkmann’s canals

A

Connects the Haversian canals

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31
Q

Cellular structure of bone

A

Osteoblasts
-Becomes an osteocyte

Osteocytes
-Mature form of osteoblasts

Osteoclasts
-Breaks down bone

Bone lining cells
-Retired osteoblast that line the bones

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32
Q

Skeletal muscle characteristics

A
  • Type 1- ST (slow twitch), SO (Slow oxidative)
  • Type 2a – FT, FOG (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic)
  • Type 2b – FT (fast twitch), FG (Fast Glycolytic)
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33
Q

Skeletal fiber arrangements

A
  • Fusiform

- Pennate (e.g. unipennate, bipennate and multipennate)

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34
Q

Smooth muscles

A
  • Non-striated
  • Organs and muscles
  • Does not contract in just one plane but in many different ones (e.g. peristalsis – shortens AND contracts)
  • Not very forceful in its contractions
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35
Q

Cardiac muscles

A
  • Striated
  • Interconnections – striations go in different directions but contract in one direction; pulls along line of force
  • Pump blood so that it contracts and squeezes on itself
  • Develop more force when it’s striated – so that the heart can get all the blood out of the ventricles
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36
Q

Skeletal muscles

A
  • Striated (e.g. Bone)
  • Pulls from Point A to point B → one direction straight to each other
  • Fibers are one direction in muscles
  • Bigger the muscle, the bigger the striations, the more force → most force
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37
Q

Agonist muscle

A

Muscle that causes motion

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38
Q

Antagonist muscle

A

Muscle that moves the joint opposite to the motion produced by the agonist

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39
Q

Anterior portion of the thigh

A 
Quadriceps:
Vastus lateralis
Vastus intermedius
Vastus medialis
Rectus femoris
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40
Q

Pes anserinus

A

Sartorius
Gracilis
Semitendinosus

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41
Q

Posterior portion of the thigh

A

Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (long and short head)

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42
Q

Lateral portion of the femur

A

IT band (TFL)

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43
Q

Lateral rotators of the hips

A 
Piriformis
Obturator externus
Obturator internus
Gemellus inferior
Gemellus superior
Quadratus femoris
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44
Q

Hip flexors

A 
Iliopsoas (major)
Sartorius
Rectus femoris
Gracilis
Pectineus
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45
Q

Hip adductors

A 
Adductor magnus
Adductor longus
Adductor brevis
Pectineus
Gracilis
Obturator externus
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46
Q

Hip extensors

A

Gluteus maximus (major)
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (long head)

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47
Q

Hip abductors

A

Tensor fascia latae (TFL)
Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus

48
Q

Anterior compartment of the lower leg

A

Tibalis anterior
Extensor digitorum longus
Extensor hallucis longus
Fibularis tertius

49
Q

Posterior compartment of the lower leg

A

Tibalis posterior
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor hallucis longus

50
Q

Lateral compartment of the lower leg

A

Fibularis longus

Fibularis brevis

51
Q

Medial ligaments of the foot

A

Deltoid ligaments:

  • anterior tibiotalar
  • posterior tibiotalar
  • tibiocalcaneal
  • tibionavicular
52
Q

Lateral ligaments of the foot

A

Anterior talofibular
Posterior talofibular
Talocalcaneal

53
Q

Terrible triad

A

MCL
Medial meniscus
ACL

54
Q

Root of the neck

A

T4

55
Q

Typical ribs

A
  • Head, neck, tubercle, angle, shaft (body)

- Ribs 3-10* (sometimes 10 is atypical)

56
Q

Atypical ribs

A
  • Missing one or more of the attributes

- Ribs 1, 2, 11, 12

57
Q

Floating ribs

A
  • Ribs 11, 12
57
Q

What are the primary curves in the spine?

A

Thoracic and sacral

  • concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly
  • kyphotic
58
Q

What are the secondary curves of the spine?

A

Cervical and lumbar

  • develops after birth
  • concave posteriorly and convex anteriorly
  • lordotic
60
Q

What are intervertebral discs composed of?

A

Annulus fibrosus

Nucleus pulposus

61
Q

Type I Fryette

A
  • Refers to the thoraco-lumbar regions
  • Neutral coupled spinal motion
  • Sidebending/rotation opposite
62
Q

Type II Fryette

A
  • Refers to the thoraco- lumbar regions
  • Non-neural coupled spinal motion
  • Sidebending/ rotation to the same side
63
Q

Bones of the foot

A
  • Tarsus (7)
  • Metatarsus (5)
  • Phalanges (14)
64
Q

What foot bone articulates with the leg bones?

A

Talus

65
Q

Bones of the tarsus

A
  • Calcaneus
  • Talus
  • Cuboid
  • Navicular
  • 3 cuneiforms
66
Q

Levers

A

Fulcrum, wedge or a pivot
-The point about which the lever rotates

Load
-The force applied by the lever system

Effort
-The force applied by the user of the lever system

67
Q

Type 1 lever

A

The pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load

  • Best for balance
  • Seesaw, pliers or AC joint (teeter totter)
68
Q

Type 2 lever

A

The load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the effort

  • Best for power
  • Stapler, wheelbarrows, Gastrco
69
Q

Type 3 Lever

A

The effort is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the load

  • Best for mobility
  • Tweezers, tongs, biceps brachii
70
Q

The OA joint

A
  • Accounts for about 50% of total flexion and extension of the cervical spine
  • Atypical Fryette’s motion mechanics for the cervical spine occurs here where opposite coupling takes place
  • Convex surface of the occipital condyles glide on the superior concave joints of atlas to allow flexion (10 degrees) and extension (25 degrees) for a total of 35 degrees
71
Q

The AA joint

A
  • Has no vertebral bodies, rotates on the odontoid process of the axis (C2)
  • Accounts for about 50% rotation
  • Axis rotates about the 3rd cervical vertebrae and it is mechanically limited
  • Rotation of approx 45 degrees in either direction is allowed by translation of the lateral bodies of the atlas on the axis which is limited by the dens ligament
72
Q

Carpal bones

A
  • Scaphoid
  • Lunate
  • Triquetrum
  • Pisiform
  • Trapezium
  • Trapezoid
  • Capitate
  • Hamate
73
Q

What are the internal and external rotators of the rotator cuff?

A

Internal rotators:

  • Subscapularis muscle
  • Latissimus dorsi
  • Teres major

External rotators:

  • Infraspinatus muscle
  • Teres minor muscle
74
Q

Key muscles to ribs

A

Ribs 1-2 –> anterior, medial and posterior scalene
Ribs 3-5 –> pectoralis minor
Ribs 1-8 –> serratus anterior
Ribs 8-12 –>latissimus dorsi, quadratus lumborum

75
Q

Costal motion for ribs

A

Ribs 1-3 –> pump handle motion
Ribs 4-6 –> mixed pump handle & bucket handle
Ribs 7-10 –>bucket handle
Ribs 11-12 –> pincer/caliper motion

76
Q

Facet orientation and primary motion of cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine

A

Cervical

  • facets face backwards and downwards
  • C2-C7 is sidebending
  • C1-C2 is rotation

Thoracic

  • facets face backwards and outwards
  • primary motion is rotation

Lumbar

  • facets face backwards and inwards
  • primary motion is flexion and extension
77
Q

Knee mechanics

A

Knee extension

  • femur rotates medially
  • tibia rotates laterally

Knee flexion

  • Femur rotates laterally
  • Tibia rotates medially
78
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

E.g. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, annulous fibrous, menisci of knee

Provides support and fusion

Consists of many type 2 collagen
• Strong and rigid → strongest of the three types of cartilage

Found throughout the body; has elastic properties

Collagen is arranged in parallel to one another
• Pulls in one direction; makes it very strong in that one direction

Chondrocytes are arranged parallel to the collagen

79
Q

Hyaline

A

E.g. Costocartilage, Joint surfaces

Provides flexibility and support and, at joints, reduces friction and absorbs shock

Weakest of the three types of cartilage

Consists of cells suspended into a homogenous ground substance

3 components:
• Cells (chondrocytes and chondroblasts)
• Collagen fibers
• Ground substance

2 types of cells
• Chondrocytes
• Chondroblasts – building

80
Q

Elastic

A

E.g. Found in outer ear

Gives support and maintains shape

Appears yellowish

Very similar to hyaline
-All cartilage has elastic cartilage but elastic just has more and less collagen

81
Q

Stages of embryology

A
  1. Fertilized egg
  2. 2 cell stage
  3. 4-cell stage
  4. 8-cell stage
  5. solid ball of cells (morula)
  6. Morula – the morula develops into a fluid-filled sphere of cells called the blastula
  7. Bastustula→ cells on one side of the blastula start to invaginae into the embryo, this starts gastroluations
  8. Early gastrula→ folds onto itself and cell migrations in early gastrula
    *THIS GIVES US SYMMETRY OF OUR BODY
  9. Gastrula- gastrulation finishes with the formation of the gastrula, an embryo with two tissue layers (endoderm and ectoderm) and a primitive digestive tract
    • Folds onto itself (pacman)
    • Gives rise to ectoderm (outside layer)→ skin, mesoderm, (middle layer) endoderm (inner layer)→ digestive tract
82
Q

Four layers of the foot

A

Layer 1

  • Abductor hallucis
  • Flexor digitorum brevis
  • Abductor digiti minimi

Layer 2

  • Quadratus plantae
  • Lumbricals
  • Flexor digitorum longus tendon
  • Flexor hallucis longus tendon

Layer 3

  • Flexor hallucis brevis
  • Adductor hallucis
  • Flexor digiti minimi brevis

Layer 4

  • Plantar interossei (three muscles)
  • Dorsal interossei (four muscles)
83
Q

Elbow joint

A

Bones: humerus, radius, ulna

Joint

  • Humeroulnar (synovial hinge joint): trochlear of humerus to trochlear of ulna
  • Humeroradial (ball and socket): head of radius to capitulum of humerus
  • Proximal radioulnar joint: head of radius to radial notch of ulna

Muscles

  • Flexors: brachioradialis, brachialis, biceps brachii
  • Extensors: triceps brachii
84
Q

3 layers of pelvic diaphragm

A

Superficial diaphragm
-Ischiocavernous muscle, superficial transverse muscle, external anal sphincter and bulbous spongeosis

Urogenital diaphragm

  • Sphincter urethra
  • Deep transverse perineal musculature

Pelvic floor diaphragm

  • Levator ani (Puborectalis, iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus)
  • Piriformis
  • Coccygeus (ishiococcygeus)
85
Q

Joints of the ankle

A

Tibiotalar/ talocrural joint

  • true joint
  • synovial hinge joint

Subtalar/ talocalcaneal joint
-synovial planar joint

Distal tibiofibular joint
-synovial planar joint

86
Q

Types of joints

A

Synovial: “freely moveable’ - Diarthrosis:

  • Ball and socket
  • Condyloid (e.g. phalangeal, metacarpals)
  • Saddle (e.g. trapezium, metacarpals)
  • Pivot (e.g. atlas and axis)
  • Planar joints (e.g. SC, AC, facets, tibiofibular)
  • Hinge (e.g. elbow, knee, ankle)

Cartilagenous: ‘slightly moveable’ - Amphiarthrosis

  • Symphysis (e.g. pubic, manubrium, sternum, intervertebral discs)
  • Synchondrosis (e.g. ephiphyseal plates, manubrium and first rib)

Fibrous: ‘relatively immobileor severely limited motion available’ - Synarthrosis:

  • Gomphosis (e.g. teeth)
  • Sutures (e.g. skull)
  • Syndesmosis (e.g. interosseous membranes)
87
Q

Arches of the foot

A

Longitudinal

  • Medial (talus, navicular, 3 cunieforms, metatarsals 1-3
  • Lateral (calcaneus, cuboid, metartarsals 4,5

Transverse
-Navicular, 3 cuneiforms, cuboid, proximal ends of metatarsal bones

88
Q

Muscles of the hand

A
  • Thenar (Oppenens pollicis, Abductor pollicis, Flexor pollicis brevis)
  • Hypothenar (Oppenns digiti minimi, Abductor digiti minimi, Flexor digiti minimi brevis)
  • Adductor pollicis
  • Palmaris brevis
  • Lumbricals
  • Interossei (Plantar, dorsal)
89
Q

Cubital fossa

A

Boundaries:

  • Lateral: Brachioradialis
  • Medial: Pronator teres
  • Superior: Line between med and lat epicondyles

Contents:

  • Radial nerve
  • Biceps tendon
  • Brachial artery
  • Medial nerve
90
Q

Quadrangular space

A

Boundaries:

  • Lat: Surgical neck of humerus
  • Med: Long head of triceps
  • Sup: Subscapularis and teres minor
  • Inf: Teres major

Contents:

  • Axillary nerve
  • Posterior humeral circumflex artery
91
Q

Axilla

A

Boundaries:

  • Lat: Intertubecular groove of humerus
  • Med: Serratus anterior and thoracic wall (ribs 1-4, intercostal muscles)
  • Ant: Pectoralis major/minor, subclavius, pectoral and clavicopectoral fascia associated with them
  • Post: Subscapularis, scapula, teres major, latissimus dorsi

Contents:

  • Axillary artery
  • Axillary vein
  • Axillary lymph nodes
  • Brachial plexus
  • Biceps and corocobrachialis
92
Q

Anatomical snuffbox

A

Boundaries:

  • Floor: Scaphoid and trapezium
  • Lateral: Abductor pollicis tendon, Extensor pollicis brevis tendon
  • Medial: Extensor pollicis longus tendon
  • Proximal: Styloid process of Radius

Contents:

  • Radial artery
  • Radial nerve
  • Cephalic vein
93
Q

Carpal tunnel

A

Boundaries:

  • Scaphoid and trapezium
  • Pisiform and hamate
  • Flexor retinaculum

Contents:

  • Flexor digitorum profundus tendons (4)
  • Flexor digitiorum superficialis tendons (4)
  • Flexor pollicis longus tendon (1)
  • Median nerve
94
Q

Ligaments of the GH joint

A
  • Superior, middle and inferior GH ligaments
  • Transverse humeral ligament
  • Coracohumeral ligament
95
Q

Suprahyoid muscles

A
  • Mylohyoid
  • Geniohyoid
  • Stylohyoid
  • Digastric
96
Q

Infrahyoid (strap) muscles

A
  • Superficial: Sternohyoid and Omohyoid

- Deep: Sternothyroid and Thyrohyoid

97
Q

Sutherland’s 5 principles

A
  1. There is inherent motility of the central nervous system
  2. There is fluctuation of the cerebrospinal fluid
  3. There is mobility of the intracranial and intraspinal membranes
  4. There is articulatory mobility of the cranial bones.
  5. There is an involuntary motion of the sacrum between the innominate bones
98
Q

What is the neurocranium composed of?

A

8 bones total

4 single bones
•	Frontal bone
•	Ethmoid bone – behind sinus
•	Sphenoid bone – bowtie looking inside the skull; Weaver said it’s the crux; pituitary gland (master hormone gland) behind it
•	Occipital bone

2 paired bones
• Parietal bones
• Temporal bones

99
Q

What is the Viscerocranium?

A

o 15 bones total

3 single bones
• mandible
• ethmoid
• vomer

6 paired bones
•	maxillary bones
•	inferior nasal conchae
•	zygomatic bones
•	palatine
•	lacrimal 
•	nasal bone
100
Q

Layers of the skull (superficial to deep)

A
  • Scalp
  • Galea Aponeurotica
  • Connective Tissue and Periosteum
  • Skull Bone
  • Dura Mater
101
Q

Meninges (superficial to deep)

A
  • Layers of tissue which serve to protect the CNS
  • Dura Mater → tough mother
  • Arachnoid Mater → like spider webs
  • Pia Mater → tight to the spinal cord; like Ceram wrap
102
Q

Ectoderm

A

• Gives rise to the Neural Plate → Neural groove → Neural fold → Neural crest → Nervous tissue
• Various other tissues…
o Eventually becomes the spinal cord and brain
o Adrenal medulla
o Skin
o Pituitary gland

103
Q

Mesoderm

A

Broken down into three branches (LIP)
o Parietal
o Intermediate
o Lateral mesoderm

104
Q

Parietal mesoderm

A
  • Bone
  • Muscle
  • Cartilage
  • Connective tissue
105
Q

Intermediate mesoderm

A
  • Kidneys

* Gonads

106
Q

Lateral mesoderm

A

• Splanchnic regions (organs, digestive, abdominal, thorax)

107
Q

Endoderm

A
  • Epithelium of the digestive tract
  • Liver (filtrate) and pancreas
  • Epithelium of respiratory tract
  • Tonsils- first line of defence in our body
  • Urethra and bladder
108
Q

Type of sutures

A

Serrate

  • Saw-toothed (e.g. the sagittal suture)
  • Rocking motion

Squamous

  • Scale-like overlapping, such as temproparietal (squamoparietal)
  • Gliding motion

Harmonic

  • Edge to edge
  • Shearing motion

Squamoserrate
-Combination, found in the lambdoidal and coronal sutures

109
Q

Major sutures of the skull

A

Coronal
-Junction between the frontal and parietal bones

Sagittal
-Junction between the two parietal bones

Squamous
-The junction between the parietal and temporal bones

Lambdoidal
-The junction between the parietal and occipital bones

Frontal/Metopic
-Located between the two frontal ones prior to fusing

110
Q

Fontanels

A 
•	Soft spot on a baby’s head, which during birth, enable the baby's plates of the skull to flex 
•	The four fontanels include: 
	   -Anterior (Frontal) fontanel 
	   -Posterior (Occipital) fontanel 
	   -Anterolateral (Sphenoid) fontanel 
	   -Posterolateral (Mastoid) fontanel
111
Q

Total bones in the skull

A

22 bones

112
Q

Number of openings in the skull

A

85

113
Q

Muscles that support the longitudinal arch

A

Tibialis anterior

Tibialis posterior

114
Q

Muscle that supports the medial arch

A

Fibularis longus

115
Q

Wrist joints

A

Radiocarpal joint

  • true joint
  • radius and carpal bones (scaphoid, lunate and triquetral)

Distal radioulnar joint
-pivot synovial joint

Osteopathy (3 decks)

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