Anatomy and physiology Flashcards
Types of muscle
- Skeletal
- Cardiac
- Smooth
Muscles responsible for inhalation
- Sternocleidomastoid
- Scalenes (anterior, middle and posterior)
- External intercostals
- Diaphragm
Muscles responsible for exhalation
- Internal intercostals
- Rectus abdominis
- Internal and external obliques
- Transversus abdominus
Types of fascia
- Superficial -Close to the skin and surface of body
- Deep -Surrounds the muscles, bones, nerves, periosteum, muscle sheath (almost everywhere)
- Visceral (AKA Parietal or Subserous) -Suspends the organs; under and in the linings of cavities
Types of cartilage
- Elastic (e.g. external ear, auditory canal, epiglottis)
- Hyaline (e.g. costocartilages, joint surfaces)
- Fibrocartilage (e.g. pubic symphysis, menisci intervertebral disc)
Composition of blood
Red blood cells (45%)
-Transports oxygen to the organ and takes away CO2
White blood cells and platelets (<1%)
- White blood cells - immunological
- Platelets - blood clotting
Plasma (55%)
-transport of nutrients to organs
General properties of fascia
- Viscosity
- Elasticity
- Plasticity
Dendrites
Fingers that detect the neurotransmitters; cause the action potential which runs to the axon
Axon
Myelinated and unmyelinated
-Myelin is an insulator and allows the neurotransmitter to run faster and farther
Nodes of Ranvier
Boosts the signal of the action potential; between the myelin sheath; saltatory conduction
Axon terminals
Releases neurotransmitters
Define viscosity
- Measure of the rate of deformation of any material under load
- Capability possessed by a solid of yielding continually under stress
Define elasticity
Ability of strained body/tissue to recover its shape after deformation
Define plasticity
Ability to retain a shape attained by deformation
Types of connective tissue
- Loose (aka areolar tissue)
2. Dense (regular and irregular)
Functions of bone
- Mechanical
- Synthesis (Immunological)
- Metabolic
Mechanical functions of bone
- Sound transduction
- Protection
- Movement
- Structure
Synthesis (immunological) function of bone
Production of blood
Metabolic functions of bone
- Storage of minerals (e.g. calcium)
- Growth factor storage
- pH balance
- Fat storage
- Endocrine (e.g. insulin)
- Detoxification (e.g. store heavy metals)
Types of bones
- Long bones
- Short bones
- Flat bones
- Sesamoid bones
- Irregular bones
Skeletal muscle function
- Produce movement
- Store energy
- Protection
- Support framework of the body
- Maintain body temperature
- Assist in blood and lymph flow
Fascia and connective tissue makes up ______% of body’s total weight
16%
Fascia and connective tissue makes up _____% of body’s total water content
25%
Cellular components of fascia
- Fibroblasts – manufacture proteins
- Mast cells – release histamine
- Histiocytes – macrophages or immune cells
Subcellular components of fascia
- Collagen (reticular fibers)
- Elastic fibers – elasticity properties
- GAGs – sugar protein in ground substance
Three primary functions of fascia
- Mechanical:
- Support (vascular and structural)
- Compartmentalization
- Conduit: somatic-autonomic neurovascular
- Metabolic
- Diffusion
- Energy storage
- Immunology
- Lines of defence: lymphoid tissue
- Barrier: compartments
Compact bone
- Stronger
- Found in the shaft of the bone
Spongy bone
- Found at the ends of the bones
- Has more holes/ open space which is filled up with extracellular fluid
- Extracting calcium from spongy bone which is at the end of the bone
- Has more surface area – where most of the remodelling is taking place, calcium is there
- Spongy bone is A LOT WEAKER; LESS STRENGTH THAN COMPACT BONE
Haversian canals
Runs up and down the length of bones – small nerve artery and vein run up this
Volkmann’s canals
Connects the Haversian canals
Cellular structure of bone
Osteoblasts
-Becomes an osteocyte
Osteocytes
-Mature form of osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
-Breaks down bone
Bone lining cells
-Retired osteoblast that line the bones
Skeletal muscle characteristics
- Type 1- ST (slow twitch), SO (Slow oxidative)
- Type 2a – FT, FOG (Fast Oxidative Glycolytic)
- Type 2b – FT (fast twitch), FG (Fast Glycolytic)
Skeletal fiber arrangements
- Fusiform
- Pennate (e.g. unipennate, bipennate and multipennate)
Smooth muscles
- Non-striated
- Organs and muscles
- Does not contract in just one plane but in many different ones (e.g. peristalsis – shortens AND contracts)
- Not very forceful in its contractions
Cardiac muscles
- Striated
- Interconnections – striations go in different directions but contract in one direction; pulls along line of force
- Pump blood so that it contracts and squeezes on itself
- Develop more force when it’s striated – so that the heart can get all the blood out of the ventricles
Skeletal muscles
- Striated (e.g. Bone)
- Pulls from Point A to point B → one direction straight to each other
- Fibers are one direction in muscles
- Bigger the muscle, the bigger the striations, the more force → most force
Agonist muscle
Muscle that causes motion
Antagonist muscle
Muscle that moves the joint opposite to the motion produced by the agonist
Anterior portion of the thigh
Quadriceps: Vastus lateralis Vastus intermedius Vastus medialis Rectus femoris
Pes anserinus
Sartorius
Gracilis
Semitendinosus
Posterior portion of the thigh
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (long and short head)
Lateral portion of the femur
IT band (TFL)
Lateral rotators of the hips
Piriformis Obturator externus Obturator internus Gemellus inferior Gemellus superior Quadratus femoris
Hip flexors
Iliopsoas (major) Sartorius Rectus femoris Gracilis Pectineus
Hip adductors
Adductor magnus Adductor longus Adductor brevis Pectineus Gracilis Obturator externus
Hip extensors
Gluteus maximus (major)
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (long head)
Hip abductors
Tensor fascia latae (TFL)
Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Anterior compartment of the lower leg
Tibalis anterior
Extensor digitorum longus
Extensor hallucis longus
Fibularis tertius
Posterior compartment of the lower leg
Tibalis posterior
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor hallucis longus
Lateral compartment of the lower leg
Fibularis longus
Fibularis brevis
Medial ligaments of the foot
Deltoid ligaments:
- anterior tibiotalar
- posterior tibiotalar
- tibiocalcaneal
- tibionavicular
Lateral ligaments of the foot
Anterior talofibular
Posterior talofibular
Talocalcaneal
Terrible triad
MCL
Medial meniscus
ACL
Root of the neck
T4
Typical ribs
- Head, neck, tubercle, angle, shaft (body)
- Ribs 3-10* (sometimes 10 is atypical)
Atypical ribs
- Missing one or more of the attributes
- Ribs 1, 2, 11, 12
Floating ribs
- Ribs 11, 12
What are the primary curves in the spine?
Thoracic and sacral
- concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly
- kyphotic
What are the secondary curves of the spine?
Cervical and lumbar
- develops after birth
- concave posteriorly and convex anteriorly
- lordotic
What are intervertebral discs composed of?
Annulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Type I Fryette
- Refers to the thoraco-lumbar regions
- Neutral coupled spinal motion
- Sidebending/rotation opposite
Type II Fryette
- Refers to the thoraco- lumbar regions
- Non-neural coupled spinal motion
- Sidebending/ rotation to the same side
Bones of the foot
- Tarsus (7)
- Metatarsus (5)
- Phalanges (14)
What foot bone articulates with the leg bones?
Talus
Bones of the tarsus
- Calcaneus
- Talus
- Cuboid
- Navicular
- 3 cuneiforms
Levers
Fulcrum, wedge or a pivot
-The point about which the lever rotates
Load
-The force applied by the lever system
Effort
-The force applied by the user of the lever system
Type 1 lever
The pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load
- Best for balance
- Seesaw, pliers or AC joint (teeter totter)
Type 2 lever
The load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the effort
- Best for power
- Stapler, wheelbarrows, Gastrco
Type 3 Lever
The effort is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the load
- Best for mobility
- Tweezers, tongs, biceps brachii
The OA joint
- Accounts for about 50% of total flexion and extension of the cervical spine
- Atypical Fryette’s motion mechanics for the cervical spine occurs here where opposite coupling takes place
- Convex surface of the occipital condyles glide on the superior concave joints of atlas to allow flexion (10 degrees) and extension (25 degrees) for a total of 35 degrees
The AA joint
- Has no vertebral bodies, rotates on the odontoid process of the axis (C2)
- Accounts for about 50% rotation
- Axis rotates about the 3rd cervical vertebrae and it is mechanically limited
- Rotation of approx 45 degrees in either direction is allowed by translation of the lateral bodies of the atlas on the axis which is limited by the dens ligament
Carpal bones
- Scaphoid
- Lunate
- Triquetrum
- Pisiform
- Trapezium
- Trapezoid
- Capitate
- Hamate
What are the internal and external rotators of the rotator cuff?
Internal rotators:
- Subscapularis muscle
- Latissimus dorsi
- Teres major
External rotators:
- Infraspinatus muscle
- Teres minor muscle
Key muscles to ribs
Ribs 1-2 –> anterior, medial and posterior scalene
Ribs 3-5 –> pectoralis minor
Ribs 1-8 –> serratus anterior
Ribs 8-12 –>latissimus dorsi, quadratus lumborum
Costal motion for ribs
Ribs 1-3 –> pump handle motion
Ribs 4-6 –> mixed pump handle & bucket handle
Ribs 7-10 –>bucket handle
Ribs 11-12 –> pincer/caliper motion
Facet orientation and primary motion of cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine
Cervical
- facets face backwards and downwards
- C2-C7 is sidebending
- C1-C2 is rotation
Thoracic
- facets face backwards and outwards
- primary motion is rotation
Lumbar
- facets face backwards and inwards
- primary motion is flexion and extension
Knee mechanics
Knee extension
- femur rotates medially
- tibia rotates laterally
Knee flexion
- Femur rotates laterally
- Tibia rotates medially
Fibrocartilage
E.g. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, annulous fibrous, menisci of knee
Provides support and fusion
Consists of many type 2 collagen
• Strong and rigid → strongest of the three types of cartilage
Found throughout the body; has elastic properties
Collagen is arranged in parallel to one another
• Pulls in one direction; makes it very strong in that one direction
Chondrocytes are arranged parallel to the collagen
Hyaline
E.g. Costocartilage, Joint surfaces
Provides flexibility and support and, at joints, reduces friction and absorbs shock
Weakest of the three types of cartilage
Consists of cells suspended into a homogenous ground substance
3 components:
• Cells (chondrocytes and chondroblasts)
• Collagen fibers
• Ground substance
2 types of cells
• Chondrocytes
• Chondroblasts – building
Elastic
E.g. Found in outer ear
Gives support and maintains shape
Appears yellowish
Very similar to hyaline
-All cartilage has elastic cartilage but elastic just has more and less collagen
Stages of embryology
- Fertilized egg
- 2 cell stage
- 4-cell stage
- 8-cell stage
- solid ball of cells (morula)
- Morula – the morula develops into a fluid-filled sphere of cells called the blastula
- Bastustula→ cells on one side of the blastula start to invaginae into the embryo, this starts gastroluations
- Early gastrula→ folds onto itself and cell migrations in early gastrula
*THIS GIVES US SYMMETRY OF OUR BODY - Gastrula- gastrulation finishes with the formation of the gastrula, an embryo with two tissue layers (endoderm and ectoderm) and a primitive digestive tract
• Folds onto itself (pacman)
• Gives rise to ectoderm (outside layer)→ skin, mesoderm, (middle layer) endoderm (inner layer)→ digestive tract
Four layers of the foot
Layer 1
- Abductor hallucis
- Flexor digitorum brevis
- Abductor digiti minimi
Layer 2
- Quadratus plantae
- Lumbricals
- Flexor digitorum longus tendon
- Flexor hallucis longus tendon
Layer 3
- Flexor hallucis brevis
- Adductor hallucis
- Flexor digiti minimi brevis
Layer 4
- Plantar interossei (three muscles)
- Dorsal interossei (four muscles)
Elbow joint
Bones: humerus, radius, ulna
Joint
- Humeroulnar (synovial hinge joint): trochlear of humerus to trochlear of ulna
- Humeroradial (ball and socket): head of radius to capitulum of humerus
- Proximal radioulnar joint: head of radius to radial notch of ulna
Muscles
- Flexors: brachioradialis, brachialis, biceps brachii
- Extensors: triceps brachii
3 layers of pelvic diaphragm
Superficial diaphragm
-Ischiocavernous muscle, superficial transverse muscle, external anal sphincter and bulbous spongeosis
Urogenital diaphragm
- Sphincter urethra
- Deep transverse perineal musculature
Pelvic floor diaphragm
- Levator ani (Puborectalis, iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus)
- Piriformis
- Coccygeus (ishiococcygeus)
Joints of the ankle
Tibiotalar/ talocrural joint
- true joint
- synovial hinge joint
Subtalar/ talocalcaneal joint
-synovial planar joint
Distal tibiofibular joint
-synovial planar joint
Types of joints
Synovial: “freely moveable’ - Diarthrosis:
- Ball and socket
- Condyloid (e.g. phalangeal, metacarpals)
- Saddle (e.g. trapezium, metacarpals)
- Pivot (e.g. atlas and axis)
- Planar joints (e.g. SC, AC, facets, tibiofibular)
- Hinge (e.g. elbow, knee, ankle)
Cartilagenous: ‘slightly moveable’ - Amphiarthrosis
- Symphysis (e.g. pubic, manubrium, sternum, intervertebral discs)
- Synchondrosis (e.g. ephiphyseal plates, manubrium and first rib)
Fibrous: ‘relatively immobileor severely limited motion available’ - Synarthrosis:
- Gomphosis (e.g. teeth)
- Sutures (e.g. skull)
- Syndesmosis (e.g. interosseous membranes)
Arches of the foot
Longitudinal
- Medial (talus, navicular, 3 cunieforms, metatarsals 1-3
- Lateral (calcaneus, cuboid, metartarsals 4,5
Transverse
-Navicular, 3 cuneiforms, cuboid, proximal ends of metatarsal bones
Muscles of the hand
- Thenar (Oppenens pollicis, Abductor pollicis, Flexor pollicis brevis)
- Hypothenar (Oppenns digiti minimi, Abductor digiti minimi, Flexor digiti minimi brevis)
- Adductor pollicis
- Palmaris brevis
- Lumbricals
- Interossei (Plantar, dorsal)
Cubital fossa
Boundaries:
- Lateral: Brachioradialis
- Medial: Pronator teres
- Superior: Line between med and lat epicondyles
Contents:
- Radial nerve
- Biceps tendon
- Brachial artery
- Medial nerve
Quadrangular space
Boundaries:
- Lat: Surgical neck of humerus
- Med: Long head of triceps
- Sup: Subscapularis and teres minor
- Inf: Teres major
Contents:
- Axillary nerve
- Posterior humeral circumflex artery
Axilla
Boundaries:
- Lat: Intertubecular groove of humerus
- Med: Serratus anterior and thoracic wall (ribs 1-4, intercostal muscles)
- Ant: Pectoralis major/minor, subclavius, pectoral and clavicopectoral fascia associated with them
- Post: Subscapularis, scapula, teres major, latissimus dorsi
Contents:
- Axillary artery
- Axillary vein
- Axillary lymph nodes
- Brachial plexus
- Biceps and corocobrachialis
Anatomical snuffbox
Boundaries:
- Floor: Scaphoid and trapezium
- Lateral: Abductor pollicis tendon, Extensor pollicis brevis tendon
- Medial: Extensor pollicis longus tendon
- Proximal: Styloid process of Radius
Contents:
- Radial artery
- Radial nerve
- Cephalic vein
Carpal tunnel
Boundaries:
- Scaphoid and trapezium
- Pisiform and hamate
- Flexor retinaculum
Contents:
- Flexor digitorum profundus tendons (4)
- Flexor digitiorum superficialis tendons (4)
- Flexor pollicis longus tendon (1)
- Median nerve
Ligaments of the GH joint
- Superior, middle and inferior GH ligaments
- Transverse humeral ligament
- Coracohumeral ligament
Suprahyoid muscles
- Mylohyoid
- Geniohyoid
- Stylohyoid
- Digastric
Infrahyoid (strap) muscles
- Superficial: Sternohyoid and Omohyoid
- Deep: Sternothyroid and Thyrohyoid
Sutherland’s 5 principles
- There is inherent motility of the central nervous system
- There is fluctuation of the cerebrospinal fluid
- There is mobility of the intracranial and intraspinal membranes
- There is articulatory mobility of the cranial bones.
- There is an involuntary motion of the sacrum between the innominate bones
What is the neurocranium composed of?
8 bones total
4 single bones • Frontal bone • Ethmoid bone – behind sinus • Sphenoid bone – bowtie looking inside the skull; Weaver said it’s the crux; pituitary gland (master hormone gland) behind it • Occipital bone
2 paired bones
• Parietal bones
• Temporal bones
What is the Viscerocranium?
o 15 bones total
3 single bones
• mandible
• ethmoid
• vomer
6 paired bones • maxillary bones • inferior nasal conchae • zygomatic bones • palatine • lacrimal • nasal bone
Layers of the skull (superficial to deep)
- Scalp
- Galea Aponeurotica
- Connective Tissue and Periosteum
- Skull Bone
- Dura Mater
Meninges (superficial to deep)
- Layers of tissue which serve to protect the CNS
- Dura Mater → tough mother
- Arachnoid Mater → like spider webs
- Pia Mater → tight to the spinal cord; like Ceram wrap
Ectoderm
• Gives rise to the Neural Plate → Neural groove → Neural fold → Neural crest → Nervous tissue
• Various other tissues…
o Eventually becomes the spinal cord and brain
o Adrenal medulla
o Skin
o Pituitary gland
Mesoderm
Broken down into three branches (LIP)
o Parietal
o Intermediate
o Lateral mesoderm
Parietal mesoderm
- Bone
- Muscle
- Cartilage
- Connective tissue
Intermediate mesoderm
- Kidneys
* Gonads
Lateral mesoderm
• Splanchnic regions (organs, digestive, abdominal, thorax)
Endoderm
- Epithelium of the digestive tract
- Liver (filtrate) and pancreas
- Epithelium of respiratory tract
- Tonsils- first line of defence in our body
- Urethra and bladder
Type of sutures
Serrate
- Saw-toothed (e.g. the sagittal suture)
- Rocking motion
Squamous
- Scale-like overlapping, such as temproparietal (squamoparietal)
- Gliding motion
Harmonic
- Edge to edge
- Shearing motion
Squamoserrate
-Combination, found in the lambdoidal and coronal sutures
Major sutures of the skull
Coronal
-Junction between the frontal and parietal bones
Sagittal
-Junction between the two parietal bones
Squamous
-The junction between the parietal and temporal bones
Lambdoidal
-The junction between the parietal and occipital bones
Frontal/Metopic
-Located between the two frontal ones prior to fusing
Fontanels
• Soft spot on a baby’s head, which during birth, enable the baby's plates of the skull to flex • The four fontanels include: -Anterior (Frontal) fontanel -Posterior (Occipital) fontanel -Anterolateral (Sphenoid) fontanel -Posterolateral (Mastoid) fontanel
Total bones in the skull
22 bones
Number of openings in the skull
85
Muscles that support the longitudinal arch
Tibialis anterior
Tibialis posterior
Muscle that supports the medial arch
Fibularis longus
Wrist joints
Radiocarpal joint
- true joint
- radius and carpal bones (scaphoid, lunate and triquetral)
Distal radioulnar joint
-pivot synovial joint
