Anatomy And Physio Flashcards
Tissue
A group of cells performing a common function. The study of tissue is histology
Epithelial
Functions as a covering of either the inside or out of the body
Example- skin or the lining of the respiratory tract
Three types of epithelial tissue
Cuboidal - square
Columnar -long rectangles
Squamous- fish scale
This can be simple or stratified
Simple- single layer
Stratified- multiple
Example- skin is stratified squamous epithelium
Main function of nerves and muscle
Nervous- carries out transmission
Muscle- carries our movement
Connective tissue
Has various function- depending on tissue type
Loose connective Dense connective Adipose connective (mostly fat, white) Cartilage Bone Blood
Fiber is the general characteristic of connective tissue
Function of the skeletal system
Protection
Movement
Mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus)
Production of blood (red and white bone marrow)
Osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
Osteoblast- creating new
Osteoclast- breakfast down
Skeletal structure
Axial- skull, vertebral column, and ribcage and sternum
Appendicular skeletal- arms and legs
Tendon
Ligaments
Tendon- muscle to bone
Ligament- bone to bone
Muscle function
Movement
Antagonist and synergistic
Process of contraction required calcium and during fatigue lactic acid builds up in the muscle
Muscle structure
Muscles are made Bundles of muscle fiber
Muscle cells are made of bundles of myofibrils
Myofibrils are made up of sarcomeres which are made up of actin (thin) and myosin (thick) which helps develop the sliding filament model
Types of muscle
Smooth lining of the blood vessels, the iris, gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and lungs
Striated includes skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle
Nervous system function
1) sensory (afferent)- sending and processing info from-hearing, seeing, touch, etc.
2) motor (efferent)- sending signals to muscles to make them move
Signal transmission
The synapse- singles transmission occurs- between two neurons or neuron to a muscle (neuromuscular junction)
Neurotransmitter- chemical which are stored in synapse and released into synaptic cleft and diffused across fo send a single to the next cell
Acetylcholine binds to the receptor on the postsynaptic membrane
Extra acetylcholine broken down by enzymatically or reabsorbed
Botulism
Toxin inhibits the release of acetylcholine from the synaptic vesicles
Myasthenia gravis
Antibodies Block Acetylcholine receptors- muscle weakness
Events for neuro response
Minimum stimulus required for activation is referred to a threshold stimulus
Resting potential -70 millivolts (K+ internal low Na+)
Positive charge action potential
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Meninges
Surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Meningitis- infection/inflammation of the meninges
Peripheral nervous system
Autonomic- involuntary, heartbeat, digestion, breathing-usually involves smooth and cardiac muscles
- sympathetic - usually accelerated - parasympathetic - slows things down
Somatic-voluntary skeletal muscle
Certain reflexes
Certain movements involve sensory information which is not processed by the brain. The reason is speed- reflexes are faster because a signal does not have to be sent up to and then return from the brain. Instead are processed by the spinal cord
The brain
- cerebrum
- cerebellum
- brain stem
Cerebrum- processing sensory info and memory
Cerebellum- receives information and from muscle and sensory receptors, controls balance and coordinated movement
Brain stem- controls many autonomic functions such as breathing and heart beat
Receptors in the skin
Cutaneous receptors in the dermis just below the epidermis detect sensation such as pressure, heat, and cold
Cornea
Cornea- front of the eye.
The chamber between cornea and iris is the fluid-filled anterior chamber
Iris
Amount of light that passes through the pupil to the lens is controlled by the smooth muscle of the iris
Lens
The flexible lens is suspended behind the iris by ligaments
Photoreceptors
Light is detected by the photoreceptors Rods (light sensitivity) and cones (color vision) in the retina on the posterior surface of the eye
Optic nerve
Signal is sent through the brain using the optic nerve
Ear three major regions
Outer ear
Middle ear
Inner ear
Outer ear
Collecting sound and sending it to the eardrum through the auditory canal
Middle ear
Separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane
Vibration picked up by the tympanic membrane get passed through a series of small bones
(Incus , malleus, and stapes)
Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube or auditory tube-function to equalize pressure and drain the middle ear
Ottis media
Bacteria from pharynx travel up the Eustachian tube to the middle and trigger inflammation and a painful buildup of fluid pressing on the tympanic membrane
Inner ear
Made up of cochlea and three semicircular canals
The cochlea processes sound and sends information down the auditory nerve.
Semicircular canals function is balance sometimes referred to as dynamic equilibrium.
blood function
transporting wastes, nutrients, hormones, and oxygen
components
fluid and cells
plasma
fluid portion-contains water, proteins, and electrolytes.
it also contains buffers to maintain ph at 7.4
erythrocytes
a. k.a. red blood cells (RBCs)- most numerous cells in blood, carry oxygen via the transport [rotein hemoglobin,
- produced by bone marrow and lack nucleus
- lifespans of roughly 100 days, RBCs are removed by macrophages mainly in the liver and spleen
leukocytes
a.k.a white blood cells (WBCs)- most function in the immune system to protect the body against diseases- some (thrombocytes/platelets) are involved in blood clotting.
blood circulation
heart-artery-arteriole-capilllary-vanule-vein-black to heart
heart
made up of cardiac muscle and 4 chambers
- 2 artria- which receive blood
- 2 ventricles that pump blood
valves sperate the chambers
electrical signals from the heart’s pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, control the sequence of events in the heartbeat
arteries
- largest blood vessels carrying blood away from heart
- smooth muscle and elastic tissue lining
- arterioles are narrower
- thinest and most numerous are capillaries
- blood returns to the heart in venules and then veins, the largest of which is vena cava
- veins may have valves
- pressure is lower in veins than arteries
pulmonary circulation (PC)
takes blood from heart to the lungs and back
PC
oxygen poor
oxygen-poor blood goes from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery
PC
oxygen rich
oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs to the heart via the pulmonary veins
it enters the left atrium and then goes to the left ventricle
systemic circulation
oxygen poor blood returns from the body to the right atrium.
the left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body (via aorta- largest vessel with the highest pressure)
returns through vena cava
respiratory system function
bringing in O2 and ride of CO2
respiratory system
upper tract
consists of nasal cavity, sinuses, middle ear, oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx
respiratory system
lower tract
trachea
bronchi and bronchioles
avleoli
diapharghm
trachea
- windpipe
bronchi and bronchioles
bronchi and bronchioles- the trachea branches into major branches- the bronchi- each bronchus leads into a lunge. in the lungs, the bronchi branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles
alveoli
the air sacs at the end of the bronchioles-gas exchanges takes place here- they are wrapped in a large number of capillaries
diaphragm
a sheet of muscle that marks the boundary between the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity. the diaphragm drops down and creates a vacuum in the thoracic cavity wihc sucks in air- negative pressure breathing
gas exchange at the alveoli
fragile structures, one cell thick, gas exchange takes place by diffusion, CO2 diffuses out and O2 diffus in
pneumonia
fluid accumulation in the alveoli interferes with gas exchange leading to lack of oxygen, coughing, and breathing difficultly.
tuberculosis
inflammatory reaction to pockets of bacteria in the lung triggers damage
endocrine system function
controls a wide range of bodily functions, metabolism, growth, reproduction, kidney function, temperature
Hormones
two types of endocrine system messengers
- steroidal - estorgen, progesterone, testosterone, cortisol, and aldosterone)
- non-steroidal- all other hormones
tropic hormones
hormones that effect endocrine glands
endocrine cells and glands
produce hormones that travel through bloodstream and target organs and have a specific effect on them.
hypothalamus pituitary gland pineal gland thyroid adrenal glands pancreas ovaries
hypothalamus
above the brainstem- produce various hormones which stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland as well as regulating autonomic functions such as body temp
pituitary gland
bellow hypothalamus-produce growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)
menstrual cycle in women and sperm in men in the anterior lobe
oxytocin and ADH in the posterior lobe (oxytocin is involved in childbirth and vasopressin (ADH) raises blood pressure and makes the kidneys conserve water
thyroid
produces T3 and Thyroxin (T4), which both require iodine for their synthesis- and control metabolism,
Parathyroid (parathyroid hormone) regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the body.
adrenal glands
located on top of the kidneys,
produce cortisol- increase metabolism and blood sugar, reduce immune function,
aldosterone- regulates kidney function and Na/K balance in the blood
epinephrine (aka adrenaline) and norepinephrine= fight or flight response to stress, increase heart rate and respiratory rate, and acetylcholine
pancreas
produce insulin to trigger absorption of glucose
produce glucagon raise glucose levels in the bloodstream
ovaries
estrogen-regulate menstrual cycle and reproduction
progesterone-plays a role in the menstrual cycle and key role in pregnancy
testes- testosterone- promotes tissue growth and regulates the reproductive system
digestive system function
digesting food, metabolizing food, excretion of waste
digestive enzymes
amylase- enzyme in saliva, breaks down starch
proteases - enzymes that break down protein-present in saliva and gastric secretions
lipases- break down in lipids
digestive system
components
mouth salivary glands pharynx esophagus stomach doudenum pancreas gallbladder small intestines large intestines appendix liver
mouth
teeth start the mechanical breakdown fo the food
salivary glands
saliva starts the digestive process- saliva acts as a lubricant, largest of the three salivary glands are the parotid glands are the parotid glands
pharynx
the throat-food passes through here from the mouth to the esophagus
esophagus
muscular tube which leads to the stomach- food is moved down by coordinated muscular contractions-peristalsis
a valve (esophageal sphincter) separates it from the stomach an improper function of that sphincter can lead to gastro esophageal reflux disease
stomach
has a muscular walled lined with mucus- contains gastric enzymes and acid (ph1) for breaking down food
doudenum
first portion of the intestine after the stomach- separated from the stomach by the duodenal sphincter
pancreas
in the area of the duodenum- produces insulin which is involved in glucose metabolism and also secretes digestive enzyme into the small intestine
gallbladder
release bile into the duodenum-bile is responsible for breaking down/emulsifying fats
small intestine
this is where the majority of digestion and nutrient absorption takes lace- the surface is covered with thousands of finger-like projections called villi- these increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients and
movement of material through the intestines is achieved by peristalsis
large intestine
waste is produced here, water is absorbed-its removal makes the content more solid and produce feces or stool
final portion of the large intestine is the rectum
Appendix
also known as the vermiform appendix, a small pouch of the colon it appears to serve as a refuge for beneficial bacteria
Liver
has many functions
- it is important for metabolism- involved in both the production and breakdown of proteins
- production and break down glycogen, a storage form of glucose, which is involved in regulating sugar levels and availability
- produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder
- lipid metabolisms
- the liver also breaks down toxins (role in drug metabolism)
excretory system function
removes waste and retains materials the body needs such as water
components of excretory system function
kidney nephron glomerulus renal tubule collecting ducts ureters bladder cystitis
kidney
major excretory organs- have massive amounts of blood, flowing through them all the time- remove waste from the blood stream as well as regulating blood pressure and electrolyte levels
nephron
the basic functional unit of the kidney- the kidney is made of many nephrons- with the nephron is the renal corpuscle, which so made of the Bowman’s capsule surrounding the capillaries of the glomerulus
Glomerulus
the site in the kidney where filteration occurs across the capillary walls
renal tubule
collects filtrate/fluid from the glomerulus-the process involves active transport to eliminate the materials that are not wanted by the body while reabsorbing those are like glucose, Na+, and water
collecting
carry filtrate from the tubules to the ureters
ureters
tubes which transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder
bladder
site for storage of urine
urethra
urine flows to the outside from the bladder by way of the urethra
cystitis
bacterial infection of the bladder where the microbes typically normal flora, travel up the urethra to get to the bladder and then cause inflammation
