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UNI FIRST YEAR SEM 2 > ANAT Block theory #2 > Flashcards

ANAT Block theory #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three steps of the nervous system?

A
  1. Sensory input
  2. Integration
  3. Motor output
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2
Q

What is sensory input?

A

Sensory input from the environment is detected by sensory nerves and travels through the body to communicate with other nerve cells

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3
Q

What is integration?

A

Processing and interpretation of sensory input

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4
Q

What is motor output?

A

a response to integrated stimuli; the response activates muscles or glands by sending motor output through motor nerves

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5
Q

What are the two principal subdivisions of the nervous system?

A

Central
Peripheral

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6
Q

What is the function of the CNS?

A

»Where all signals come to and from
»Where they are integrated
»Where information can be stored

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7
Q

What is the function of the PNS?

A

System that brings those signals to and from the CNS

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8
Q

What are the two divisions that the PNS can be further broken down into?

A

Sensory (afferent) division
Motor (efferent) division

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9
Q

What does the sensory division do?

A

Relays information to CNS
Sensing things such as sight, smell, touch and even pain
Sends the information to the CNS through sensory neurons

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10
Q

What does the motor division do?

A

Relays information from CNS to target cells
The actual response that is elicited
Signal comes from the CNS, the brain, or spinal cord and is relayed to a target cell through efferent neurons

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11
Q

What subdivisions can the motor (efferent) division be further divided into?

A

Somatic
Autonomic

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12
Q

What is the function of the somatic nervous system? And how does it do that?

A

Controls voluntary movement

Signal comes from the CNS through the efferent neurons to a target skeletal muscle cell, eliciting movement of that muscle

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13
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Controls involuntary movement

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14
Q

What can the autonomic nervous system be further divided into?

A

Sympathetic - fight or flight
Parasympathetic - rest and digest

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15
Q

What do neurons do?

A

Structural units of the nervous system.

Allow for communication within and between the CNS and PNS.

Can generate and transmit rapid electrical signals to other neurons

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16
Q

Neuron Structure

A

cell body, dendrites, axon

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17
Q

What does the cell body do in a neuron?

A

Functions to transfer electrical signals from the dendrites to the axon
Also called the ‘soma’
Houses the nucleus and other organelles

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18
Q

What does the dendrites do in a neuron?

A

Receive the neuronal signal form other neurons and transfer those signals to the cell body

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19
Q

What does the axon do in a neuron?

A

Carry the signal from the cell body to the axon terminals, where the signal is then transferred to other neurons or organs

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20
Q

What is the direction of a nerve impulse?

A

Unidirectional

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21
Q

What are the characteristics of a pseudo-unipolar neuron?

A

Have one cellular process that splits into a dendrite and an axon.

Example: general sensory nerves

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22
Q

What are the characteristics of a bipolar neuron?

A

Have one dendrite and one axon that extend directly from the cell body

Have two distinct cellular processes

Only found in special sense, like sight and hearing

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23
Q

What are the characteristics of a multipolar neuron?

A

Have multiple dendrites and one axon, summing to three or more cellular processes

Number of dendrites is variable

Most common type of neurons

Example: motor neurons

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24
Q

What is the function of glia?

A
  • Function to protect and support neurons and aid in sending signals between neurons to improve communication
  • These cells DO NOT generate or transmit nerve impulses
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24
Q

What are the 4 supporting cells of the CNS?

A
  1. Astrocytes
  2. Microglia
  3. Ependymal
  4. Oligodendrocytes
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25
Q

What is an astrocyte?

A
  • Large star shaped cells with numerous processes
  • Communicate with neurons and blood vessels to maintain the integrity of the neural tissue
  • Most abundant
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26
Q

What is microglia?

A

-Perform many protective functions in the CNS

-Able to phagocytose, or engulf and destroy pathogens, and eliminate waste products from other cells

-Least common

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27
Q

What is ependymal?

A

-Cuboidal in shape
-Line cavities of brain and spinal cord
-Assist in the production, circulation, and monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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28
Q

What are oliogodendrocytes?

A

Wrap around axons in the CNS to form myelin sheath

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29
Q

What is myelination?

A

-An important function of neuroglia is to myelinate parts of an axon
-Myelin is composed mainly of fat
-Appears white
-Insulates the axon and increases the speed at which electrical signals can travel down the axon

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30
Q

What are unmyelinated axons called?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

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31
Q

What is the main type of neuroglial cell in the PNS called?

A

The Schwann Cell

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32
Q

What is a Schwann cell?

A

They wrap the axon with myelin sheath. These are found in the PNS and only myelinate one axon at a time.

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33
Q

What parts is the brain composed of?

A

Cerebrum
Brainstem
Cerebellum

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34
Q

What makes up the bulk of the brain?

A

Cerebrum

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35
Q

What is the telencephalon?

A

A part of the cerebrum

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36
Q

What are the features of the Telencephalon?

A

Cerebral hemisphere
Cerebral cortex
Sulci and gyri

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37
Q

What is the cerebral hemisphere?

A

-Cerebrum is made up of two paired hemispheres: the right and the left cerebral hemisphere
-Hemispheres are separated by the longitudinal fissure

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38
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

outer layer of the cerebrum - can be distinguished by its dark, grey colour

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39
Q

What are the sulci and gyri?

A

-Folds in the cerebrum
-Increases surface area of neural tissue which increase the functional capacity of the tissue
-Fissures and grooves: sulci
-Lumps and bumps: gyri

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40
Q

Where is the pre-central sulcus?

A

running in front of and parallel to the central sulcus, separated from it by the precentral gyrus.

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41
Q

Where is the lateral sulcus?

A

between temporal and parietal/frontal lobes

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42
Q

Where is the parieto-occipital sulcus?

A

between parietal and occipital lobes

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42
Q

Where is the post-central sulcus?

A

parallel to, and behind, the central sulcus in the human brain.

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43
Q

Where is the central sulcus?

A

between frontal and parietal lobes - it also separates the motor from the sensory cortex

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44
Q

What does the pre-central gyrus do?

A

Responsible for sending motor output signals. It is located anteriorly to the central sulcus

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45
Q

What does the post-central gyrus do?

A

Responsible for sending motor output signals. It is located anteriorly to the central sulcus

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46
Q

What does the post-central gyrus do?

A

Responsible for receiving sensory input related to touch and feel. It is located posteriorly to the central sulcus

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47
Q

What are the four lobes?

A

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

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48
Q

Grey Matter of the brain

A

-Consists of nerve cell bodies, short interneurons, and glial cells
-Contains the central canal which is filled with CSF
-Each half of the grey matter is divided into regions called horns
-Can be found in cerebral cortex and inner areas of the brain

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49
Q

What does the ventral horn do?

A

carries motor information

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50
Q

What does the dorsal horn do?

A

carries sensory information

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51
Q

White matter of the brain

A

-Lines the outside of the grey matter of the spinal cord (but is on the inside of the brain)

-Consists of bundles of nerve fibres or axons

-Consists of tracts of fibres separated into anterior, lateral, and posterior funiculi (bundles)

-Each bundle is connected to a specific region of the brain

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52
Q

What are the three categories of white matter tracts?

A
  1. Association
  2. Commissural
  3. Projection Fibres`
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53
Q

What does the association fibres do?

A

Facilitate communication within ONE hemisphere

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54
Q

What does the commissural fibres do?

A

facilitate communication between two hemispheres
e.g. corpus callosum

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55
Q

What does the projection fibres do?

A

Facilitate communication between different levels of the CNS
E.g. between brain and spinal cord

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56
Q

What are the components of the Diencephalon of the cerebrum?

A

-Thalamus
-Hypothalamus

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57
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

»Deep brain structure with two bodies (one per hemisphere)
»Responsible for relaying sensory information (except the sense of smell) to other areas of the brain

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58
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

»Small structure below the thalamus
»Connected to pituitary gland
»Controls the release of hormones through the pituitary gland

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59
Q

What is the brainstem?

A

Area of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord

Situated just below the diencephalon

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60
Q

What is the brainstem comprised of?

A

comprised of?
midbrain, pons, medulla

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61
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

*Most superior aspect of the brainstem
*Anteriorly, the midbrain consists of large white matter tracts that make up the cerebral peduncles
*Postero-lateral view: midbrain has two pairs of raised bumps, known as the superior and inferior colliculi

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62
Q

What is the pons?

A

*Structure in the middle of the brainstem
*Located anterior to the 4th ventricle and the cerebellum
*Pons has fibers connecting it to the cerebellum, allowing for communication between these two structures

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63
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A

*Most inferior structure
*Continuous with the spinal cord

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64
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Structure that is appended to the back of the brainstem

Sits underneath the occipital lobe of the cerebrum

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65
Q

What does the cerebellum do?

A

coordinates movement and balance

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66
Q

What are meninges?

A

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

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67
Q

What do the meninges do?

A

They serve as a protective covering of the CNS

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68
Q

What is the dura mater?

A

Dura Mater is the most superficial and tough of the meninges. It is composed of a double layer of connective tissue that attaches firmly to the skull

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69
Q

What is the arachnoid mater?

A

*Loosely covers the brain

*Creates an area called the subarachnoid space

*This space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (a protective fluid) and blood vessels

70
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

This is the internal layer that attaches to the cerebral cortex

71
Q

What do the ventricles do?

A

Support and protection to the brain

72
Q

What are the ventricles in the brain made up of?

A

»Made up of four hollow spaces that are continuous with each other and the spinal cord

»Spaces contained cerebrospinal fluid (CSF

73
Q

Lateral ventricles

A

*Lateral ventricles are paired “c” shaped spaces deep within the cerebral hemisphere
*Portion of the lateral ventricles can be found in each lobe

74
Q

Third ventricle

A

-The singular third ventricle is located in the middle of the diencephalon between the two halves of the thalamus.

-Connected to the lateral ventricles by the interventricular foramina (of Monro)

75
Q

Fourth ventricle

A

-Sits between the pons/medulla and the cerebellum

-Connected to the third ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct

-Continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord and the subarachnoid space

76
Q

How many ventricles are in the brain?

A
  1. Lateral ventricles (2)
  2. Fourth ventricle (1)
  3. Third ventricle (1)

*All together 4

77
Q

What is the directional flow of CSF?

A
  1. Lateral Ventricles
  2. Interventricular Foramen
  3. Third ventricle
  4. Cerebral Aqueduct
  5. Fourth Ventricle
  6. Subarachnoid space
78
Q

Where is the spinal cord located?

A

vertebral canal and is supported by the vertebral column

79
Q

What is the purpose of the spinal cord?

A

Facilitates communication between the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system through the spinal nerves

80
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin?

A

foramen magnum

81
Q

Where does the spinal cord end?

A

L2

82
Q

What happens below the L2 level?

A

Inferior to L2, the axons emerging from the spinal cord are known as the cauda equina

Within the cauda equina, the filum terminale (a small thin strand of pia mater) anchors the spinal cord to the sacrum

83
Q

Order of spinal cord regions from top to bottom

A

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar sacral

84
Q

Why do spinal enlargements occur?

A

Enlargements occur because of the additional nerves exiting the spinal cord that supply the limbs

85
Q

Where is the spinal cord enlarged?

A

cervical and lumbar regions

86
Q

What does the cervical enlargement supply?

A

upper limbs

87
Q

What does the lumbar enlargement supply?

A

lower limbs

88
Q

When the C1 to C3 are injured what happens?

A

Limited movement of the head and neck only

89
Q

When the C5 is injured, what happens?

A

Head, neck, and shoulder movement, bend elbows and rotate hands

90
Q

What is injured when there is normal upper body movement, but some degree of impairment in the legs?

A

T1-T6 injury

91
Q

Where is the grey matter of the spinal cord located?

A

inside

92
Q

What does the grey matter in the spinal cord consist of?

A

Consists of a ventral horn (which carries motor information), and a dorsal horn (which carries sensory information)

93
Q

Where is the white matter of the spinal cord located?

A

White matter lines the outside of the grey matter of the spinal cord

94
Q

Where is the white matter of the spinal cord consist of?

A

Consists of tracts of fibers separated into anterior, lateral, and posterior funiculi (bundles)

95
Q

What is grey matter in the spinal cord composed of?

A

Mainly composed of dendrites, neuron cell bodies, glial cells, and unmyelinated axons

96
Q

What is white matter in the spinal cord composed of?

A

Mainly composed of myelinated axons

97
Q

What does the endocrine system work at?

A

Homeostasis

98
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Proper balance of chemicals and other substances in the body and the harmonious functioning and coordination of all the various bodily processes and organ systems

99
Q

What does the endocrine system do?

A

System helps maintain state of balance in the body by performing a regulatory role for all the other organ systems by secreting hormones and glands

100
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers that travel through our circulatory system to other parts of the body in order to control or regulate a body process

101
Q

Define endocrine

A

Cells of these glands secrete hormones directly into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells. The hormones are then picked up by the blood capillaries

Glands secrete their hormones within the gland

102
Q

Define exocrine

A

Glands that secrete cell products into a duct system

Glands that secrete their hormones outside the gland

103
Q

pituitary gland

A

-base of the brain that extends from the hypothalamus
-known as the “master gland”
-produces and releases hormones that control all other endocrine glands

104
Q

thyroid gland

A

-produces thyroid glands important for homeostasis
-sits anterior to the trachea
-calcium homeostasis

105
Q

parathyroid glands

A

-four small oval glands situated on the back of thyroid gland
-paired (2 superior, and 2 inferior)
-maintenance of calcium homeostasis

106
Q

pancreas

A

Produces enzymes for digestion and the hormone insulin that regulates blood sugar levels

107
Q

adrenal glands

A

-sit on top of each kidney
-“suprarenal glands”
-production of corticosteroids
-maintenance of fluid balance

108
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located?

A

Located inferior to the hypothalamus

Sits in a concavity of the sphenoid bone in the middle of the skull

109
Q

Physical contact between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland allow for…

A

allows for communication between the nervous and endocrine system

110
Q

What are the two lobes that the pituitary gland are divided into?

A

Anterior (Adenohypophysis)
Posterior (Neurohypophysis)

111
Q

What hormones are in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

A

-Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

-Prolactin (PRL)

-Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

-Growth hormone (GH)

-Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

112
Q

What hormones are in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

A

Oxytocin
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

113
Q

What does the thyroid stimulating hormone do?

A

Acts on the thyroid gland, causing it to release thyroid hormones

114
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

Induces the mammary glands of the breast to produce milk

115
Q

What does Adrenocorticotropic Hormone do?

A

regulate the glucocorticoid (steroid) hormone cortisol.

116
Q

What does the growth hormone do?

A

stimulates growth in cells

117
Q

What does the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) do?

A

Both act on the gonads

They stimulate secretion of estrogen and progesterone, and maturation of oocytes in the ovaries

They stimulate secretion of testosterone and sperm production in the testes

118
Q

What does melanocyte do?

A

stimulates melanocytes in the skin to produce pigment

119
Q

Where does neurohypophysis get its name?

A

Known as neurohypophysis because it is made up of nervous tissue

120
Q

What does ADH do?

A

The general function of ADH is to promote reabsorption of water at the kidneys

121
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

The function of oxytocin is to promote uterine contractions during childbirth. It also plays a role in breastfeeding

122
Q

What stains darker, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland or the posterior?

A

The anterior

123
Q

What is the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland made up of?

A

-Glandular tissue
-Made up of glandular acini (small sac-like cavities) that are arranged in small groups that are surrounded by connective tissue

124
Q

What is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland made up of?

A

-Composed of nervous and connective tissue
-Does not contain acini

125
Q

What is an important structure in maintaining metabolic homeostasis?

A

The thyroid gland

126
Q

Where does the thyroid gland lie?

A

Sits in the neck anterior to the trachea and inferior to the larynx

127
Q

What is the thyroid gland composed of?

A

Follicles that are lined with simple cuboidal follicular cells.
These surround a central lumen called colloid.
Between the follicles are parafollicular (“C”) cells

128
Q

What do the follicular cells in the thyroid gland produce?

A

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)

Act to increase the rate of metabolism and oxygen consumption

129
Q

What do the C cells in the thyroid gland produce?

A

The C cells are important in calcium homeostasis
They produce calcitonin - lowers the blood calcium concentration

130
Q

What are the parathyroid glands?

A

four tiny glands embedded in the back of the thyroid

131
Q

What do the parathyroid glands do?

A

What do the parathyroid glands do?

132
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

on top of the kidneys

133
Q

What structures can the adrenal glands be divided into?

A

-the cortex
-the medulla

134
Q

What does the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to sympathetic nervous system stimulation resulting in an autonomic (flight or fight) response

135
Q

What are the three layers that the adrenal cortex is divided into? And what do they do?

A

The outer layer
The middle layer
The inner layer

Collectively they produce two dozen hormones

136
Q

What does the outer layer of the adrenal cortex produce?

A

Mineralocorticoids

137
Q

What does the middle layer of the adrenal cortex produce?

A

Glucocorticoids

138
Q

What does the inner layer of the adrenal cortex produce?

A

Androgens

139
Q

True or false: the pancreas is a mixed gland (has both exocrine and endocrine functions)?

A

True

140
Q

What do beta cells do?

A

produce insulin and functions to lower blood glucose levels (hypoglycemic)

141
Q

What do alpha cells do?

A

produce glucagon and functions to increase blood glucose levels (hyperglycaemic)

142
Q

What does the PNS contain?

A

-Contains all of the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord
-PNS contains the spinal and cranial nerves

143
Q

What does the sensory (afferent) system do?

A

Transmits sensory information from the periphery to the CNS

144
Q

What does the motor (efferent) system do?

A

Transmits motor commands from the CNS to the periphery

145
Q

What does the somatic nervous system do?

A

controls voluntary movements

146
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system do?

A

Involuntary motor control of smooth and cardiac muscle

147
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

A

fight or flight

148
Q

What does the parasympathetic system do?

A

rest and digest

149
Q

How do cranial nerves emerge?

A

Emerge in pairs from the brain and brainstem instead of the spinal cord

150
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?

A

12

151
Q

Nerve I

A

Olfactory
Sensory only
Smell

152
Q

Nerve II

A

Optic
Sensory only
Vision

153
Q

Nerve III

A

Oculomotor
Motor only
Movement of the eye (there’s three)

154
Q

Nerve IV

A

Trochlear
Motor only
Movement of the eye

155
Q

Nerve V

A

Trigeminal
Sensory - forehead, eye, upper jaw, lower jaw
Motor - muscles of mastication

156
Q

Nerve VII

A

Facial
Sensory - taste for anterior 2/3 of tongue
Motor - muscles of facial expression, parasympathetic innervation of tear and salivary glands

157
Q

Nerve VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear
Sensory only
Equilibrium and hearing

158
Q

Nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal
Sensory - sensory innervation of the pharynx, taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue
Motor - pharynx muscles, parasympathetic innervation of salivary glands

159
Q

Nerve X

A

Vagus
Sensory - sensory innervation of the larynx
Motor - Pharynx and larynx muscles, parasympathetic innervation of the thoracic and abdominal organs

160
Q

Nerve XI

A

Accessory
Motor only
Trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles

161
Q

Nerve XII

A

Hypoglossal
Motor only
Muscles of the tongue

162
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31

163
Q

How is a spinal nerve formed?

A

A spinal nerve is formed by the union of the posterior (sensory) and anterior (motor) roots of the spinal cord

164
Q

How are spinal nerves named?

A

Letter = refers to the region of the spinal cord
Number = refers to the level

165
Q

What are the nerve plexuses?

A

Once the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column, fibres from the anterior roots (motor) come together and then redistribute into new networks of nerves (plexuses) that mostly innervate muscles of the limb

166
Q

What do the nerve plexuses contain?

A

Each plexuses therefore contains fibres (a collection of axons) from a combination of spinal nerves

167
Q

What is the functional importance of the nerve plexuses?

A

In the case of injury, the contribution of multiple spinal nerves into the nerve plexuses ensures innervation to the muscle

168
Q

What nerve plexuses correspond to the cervical enlargement?

A

The cervical and brachial plexuses correspond to the cervical enlargement

169
Q

What nerve plexuses correspond to the lumbosacral enlargement?

A

Lumbar and sacral plexuses correspond to the lumbosacral enlargement

170
Q

What does “two neuron pathway” mean?

A

Between the CNS and any target organ, there are two neurons

171
Q

Between the CNS and any target organ, there are two neurons

A

The automatic nervous system

172
Q

What is the preganglionic neuron?

A

-has its cell body within the CNS
-The axon enters into the PNS and travels to the autonomic ganglion

173
Q

What is the autonomic ganglion?

A

-where the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons meet and communicate
-located in the PNS

174
Q

What is a postganglionic neuron?

A

-entirely in the PNS
-its cell body is in the autonomic ganglion, while its axon travels to the target organ

UNI FIRST YEAR SEM 2 (10 decks)

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