Analysis of Financial Statements Flashcards
Matching concept
When we recognize revenue, we also recognize expenses in this period - including e.g. warranty expenses, etc. (generally)
Over 40% of SEC enforcement actions on accounting issues deal with revenue recognition - correct?
Yes
How can you classify revenue?
Subset of income - wealth creation due to the normal operating activities of a firm - e.g. for British airways, selling/buying planes would be income, not revenue
McDonalds - how do they account?
Define themselves as a restaurant - not a real estate firm (even though they make a lot of profits from real estate)
When is revenue recognized?
When it is earned by providing the service
When does the long-term construction industry (highways, shipbuilding, etc) recognize revenues?
Production phase
When do agricultural goods get recognized?
Completion of production
In the past - how did the situation look like - why change the rules?
2 broad standards in IFRS: IAS 11 & 18
US: 140 different pieces of guidance (industry-specific & conceptually inconsistent)
Two simple principles:
- Revenue is earned once a “performance obligation” is satisfied under the terms of the customer contract
- Revenue must be allocated to the different performance obligations inherent in the customer contract and recognized separately
When does revenue get recognized for most retail and manufacturing industries?
Sale of good or service
When does revenue get recognized for real estate development?
Cash collection
Revenue is recognized during production when:
- a specific customer is identified and a price is agreed on
- a significant portion of the services has been performed and the expected costs of future services can be reliably estimated, and
- an assessment of the customer’s credit standing permits an estimate of the amount of cash that will be collected.
- Used for long term contracts
- Percentage-of-completion method
- Now ONLY allowed for service contracts
Ongoing/bundled services - revenue recognition
Telecoms example (1. phone, 2. mobile service, 3. financing) –> needs to be unbundled
Bill and hold - revenue recognition
Normally you wait until customer takes possession
Old system in construction: Percentage of completion - now
Milestones - performance obligations
When should an asset be capitalized?
When the asset meets the asset recognition criteria:
1. The value of the benefits are quantifiable
2. The entity has acquired the right to use the resource as a result of past transactions
Expedia with bookings vs Coca Cola with bottles
Risk of loss - treated as principle? Transaction on gross basis? - for Expedia, only middlemen; for Coca Cola, e.g. Coop accounts at full price
What do most accounting issues relate to?
- revenue recognition policy (40% SEC), 2. overly aggressively expensing (expensing capitalization, etc.)
Cost to capitalise
All costs necessary to acquire the asset and make it ready for use - for self-constructed assets: capitalize entire construction cost, including interest on debt incurred to finance the construction (required US, permitted IFRS)
Additional costs during company’s operation - expense or capitalize?
- If the expenditures restore or maintain an asset: expense them.
- If the expenditures (1) increase the useful life of the asset, (2) reduce operating costs, or (3) increase the productivity/output: capitalise them and depreciate
over the remaining useful life
Why do assets get depreciated?
Matching concept - Depreciation is a process of cost allocation, not asset valuation
Does land get depreciated?
No
Depreciation involves three estimates of future events:
– Expected useful life of the asset
– Expected salvage value
– Depreciation pattern which will reflect the asset’s declining
service potential – depreciation method
Accelerated Depreciation
Double declining: Annual Depreciation = Asset Remaining Cost2 Straight Line
Rate
Sum-of-years’ digits: Annual Depreciation = (Asset Cost – Salvage Value)*Years
Remaining/Sum of all Years
Units of Production - depreciation method
Annual Depreciation/ Unit= (Asset Cost – Salvage Value)/Number of Output Units
Double declining depreciation method
Annual Depreciation = Asset Remaining Cost2 Straight Line Rate
Sum-of-years’ digits depreciation method:
Annual Depreciation = (Asset Cost – Salvage Value)*Years Remaining/Sum of all Years
How do changes in the allocation method get treated?
Differently under US and International GAAP:
– International –> change is applied prospectively.
– US –> change is applied retroactively:
* Go back and ‘redepreciate’ the asset under the new method
* Depreciation for current & future years computed under new method, assuming that this method has been used throughout
* Cumulative difference in depreciation b/w the two methods is charged to current years profits (Cumulative Effect of Accounting Change)
Disclosure of Fixed Assets IFRS vs US
IFRS more detailed information about acquisitions, disposals, depreciation etc.
Administrative related depreciation – Depreciation on the corporate headquarters, retail stores, etc. - where is this normally included?
– This is NOT included in cost of sales, but rather is treated as an SG&A (Selling, General & Administrative) expense
– Sometimes this is separately disclosed (or combined with
Amortisation expense), but not always
How is depreciation for natural resources (e.g. oil and gas, minerals, gold, and silver) called?
Depletion
How do we determine the cost of natural resources? How should expenditures for site acquisition, exploration, development, and restoration be treated?
- Use the concept of cost allocation as with other fixed assets. In this case, it is called depletion rather than depreciation.
- Estimate the physical potential of the natural resource, i.e. the depletion base
- Periodic depletion is based on the ratio of units extracted during the period to total estimated units available.
Repairs and Maintenance - how to account for them?
- Repairs include the cost of restoring an asset’s service
potential after breakdowns or other damage. - Maintenance includes routine costs such as cleaning
or adjusting.
–> Both types of costs are an immediate expense
When/how to capitalise expenses?
- Unlike repairs and maintenance costs:
- The improvement cost is added to the original cost of the asset
- And it should be depreciated over the remaining useful life of the asset because improvements change the asset’s service potential
Changes in Asset Values: Revaluations and Impairments - US GAAP and IFRS
- US GAAP: Increases in value CANNOT be recognised until the asset is sold - assets cannot be revalued upwards - substantial decreases in value (asset impairment) must be
recognised immediately - conservatism - IFRS: Assets must written down if impaired - Upwards revaluations permitted (but not mandated)
Revaluations - US GAAP and IFRS
Not allowed under US GAAP
Allowed under International GAAP:
* Revaluations must be done consistently across asset
groups
* Revaluations are need to be performed frequently – Because of this most companies stopped revaluing their assets
Accounting for Asset Revaluations - IFRS - Upon Revaluation
– Increase the cost of the asset to the revalued amount
– Eliminate the accumulated depreciation
– The increase in value (“gain”) is put in a special equity account called “revaluation reserve”
Accounting for Asset Revaluations - IFRS - After Revaluation - Subsequent periods
– Depreciate the asset based on the revalued amount (hence, depreciation expense increases)
– Transfer an amount from the revaluation reserve directly to Retained Profits to offset the ‘extra’ depreciation expense
– Do NOT recognise any gains or losses on the P&L
Accounting for Revaluations – Sale
- Eliminate the fixed asset and accumulated depreciation.
Record any cash received and calculate the amount of
gain/loss (difference b/w cash and net book value) – Same as normal asset sales - Transfer the remaining balance in the revaluation
reserve (for that asset) directly to Retained Profits – This does NOT go through the P&L – Eliminates revaluation reserve
US GAAP - impairments
- Eliminate Accumulated Depreciation
- Decrease Fixed Asset ‘cost’ to Impaired amount
- Loss goes to P&L
- Permanent
International GAAP - impairments
- Impairment increases Accumulated Depreciation
- Loss goes to P&L
- Reversals are possible (but more difficult for goodwill)
- Revalued Assets –> First revalue asset downwards & reduce the revaluation reserve (no P&L effect).
Impairments under US GAAP - steps
- Step 1 – Estimate the sum of undiscounted cash flows of operating units and compare it to the carrying amount of the operating unit. If the sum of undiscounted cash flows is lower than the carrying amount, an impairment loss must be recognized.
- Step 2 - The impairment loss is equal to the difference between the carrying amount and the present value of cash flows (fair value).
- After recognizing an impairment loss, the new carrying amount becomes the new cost basis (no reversal of losses).
Impairments under International GAAP
- Impairment testing for each cash-generating unit, whenever there are specified indications for impairment (e.g., market-to-book below one).
- Whenever there are indications for impairment, a recoverable amount must be measured – The larger between present value of cash flows (Value-in-Use) and net selling price (Exit Value).
- An impairment loss is recognized in the Income Statement.
- An impairment loss may be reversed. Impairments of goodwill may be reversed only when the circumstances that caused the impairment no longer exist.
Arguments for capitalisation of interest cost
- Interests similar to other costs
- Better matching
- Better comparability between own construction
and purchases
Arguments against capitalisation of interest costs
- Arbitrary allocation of borrowing costs
- Costs affected by source of financing
Capitalisation of interest or borrowing
costs - US vs UK vs IAS GAAP
- UK GAAP - FRS 15: Option to companies, should apply policy consistently, only actual interest expense on separate borrowings for construction
- US GAAP - SFAS 34: Mandatory capitalisation, interest expense on separate borrowings for construction. If no
separate borrowing, weighted borrowing costs applied to
expenditures incurred on construction - IAS GAAP – IAS 23: Mandatory capitalisation, should apply policy consistently; Interest expense on separate borrowings for construction. If no separate borrowing, weighted borrowing costs applied to expenditures incurred on construction
Capitalisation should begin when the following three conditions are present (all GAAPs)
– Expenditures for the asset must have been made; and
– Activities that are necessary to get the asset ready for its intended use are
in progress; and
– Interest cost is being incurred.
Capitalisation of borrowing costs:
Capitalisation period (under all GAAPs)
- Interest capitalized in a year cannot be more than the interest incurred in that year.
- Interest capitalisation should cease when the asset is “substantially complete” and ready for use.
- For financial analysis, better to treat borrowing costs as an expense as true interest expense may otherwise be understated.
Adjustments for Reversing the Effect of
Capitalisation
- Capitalised interest should be added to interest expense in P&L
- Depreciation expense in P&L should be reduced by the amount that relates to depreciation of previously capitalised interest.
- NBV of capitalised interest on assets sold during the year should be added to profit (loss) on disposal of fixed assets in P&L
- NBV of capitalised interest (i.e. capitalised interest less accumulated depreciation of capitalised interest) should be excluded from NBV of assets.
- Reduce deferred tax liability by NBV of capitalised interest * Marginal tax rate.
- “NBV of capitalised interest *(1-Marginal tax rate)” should be deducted from Shareholder’s funds.
An expenditure should be capitalised (i.e., shown as an asset) if it meets the asset recognition criteria:
- The value of the benefit is quantifiable,
- The entity has acquired the right to use the resource as a result of past transactions
Intangible Fixed Assets - IAS …
Definition: “identifiable non-monetary assets without physical substance” (IAS 38).
Capitalisation vs. Expensing - table picture
Intangibles: General rule for recognition
- Internally generated intangible assets are (generally) not able (or less able) to be recognized by firms (ie offbalance sheet).
- Acquired intangible assets, including intangibles acquired in business combinations, are generally recognised (ie
on-balance sheet).
Research and Development costs - capitalization?
IFRS only
Internally Generated Intangibles - US GAAP
- Generally not recognised (all costs expensed); Exceptions:
- Software – Capitalise (and amortise) expenditures once ‘technological feasibility’ is established (over three years, linear) – Stop when product is available for general release
- Website Development – Expense costs during planning stage – Capitalise (& amortise) costs during website’s application & and infrastructure development stages – Expense costs incurred during operation stage
Internally Generated Intangibles - International GAAP
- Research Costs are always expensed
- Development Costs are capitalised (and amortised) – Intent to & technical feasibility of completing the asset – Ability to use/sell asset – How the asset will generate a future economic benefit
- Software & Website Development – Similar to US
Acquired Intangibles - Subsequent measurement – US GAAP
- Revaluation NOT allowed
- Amortise asset over useful life
- If intangible has an indefinite life do NOT amortise – Test annually for impairment (Goodwill)
Acquired Intangibles - Subsequent measurement – International GAAP
- Revaluations allowed, but must be based on price in an active market (rare) – Revaluations must be regularly performed (annually in general)
- Amortise asset over useful life (20 year max, rebuttable)
Intangible revaluations
Can only revalue intangible assets if they are traded on an active market.
Almost all intangibles fail to meet this requirement, but there are
a few which qualify: Taxi licenses in major cities, carbon credits, and crypto currencies
Crypto Asset Accounting
- Financial asset -> only if it meets the definition of a financial asset (e.g. stablecoin like USD Coin)
- Inventory -> only if the entity holding the crypto currency is a broker/dealer
- Intangible asset -> if the crypto asset isn’t a financial asset or inventory, this is the only other option (most crypto assets end up here)
Crypto Asset Accounting – US GAAP
- Similar to IFRS, most crypto assets are treated as intangible assets.
- HOWEVER under current US GAAP you can NOT revalue intangibles
- –> historical cost – You must test for impairment – Any impairment can NOT be reversed
Crypto Asset Accounting - IFRS
- Most crypto assets are treated as intangible assets – Account for the asset at its market value – Increases in value go to comprehensive income, decreases in value through the income statement
Acquired Intangibles – Patents
- Costs associated with patent applications, legal fees and document preparation are capitalized
- All R&D costs associated with new ideas that will (hopefully) eventually be patented are expensed!
- Shorter of useful life or legal life of patent is used in the amortization calculation (usually straight-line method)
- In general, the patents you are likely to see recorded are those purchased from other entities. Why?
Acquired Intangibles – Brands
IFRS and US GAAP both allow firm’s to recognize and value acquired intangibles, including Brands.
How do we separate and value Brands?
- With great difficulty and subjectivity…
- Cost-based approaches
- Market-based approaches
- Economic use or income-based approaches
- Formulary approaches
Finite vs Indefinite useful life - International accounting treatment
- Intangible assets with finite useful live - capitalised and amortised
- Intangibles assets with indefinite useful lives – capitalised and reviewed for impairment
- Purchased goodwill – capitalised and reviewed annually for impairment
Accounting for Goodwill
Goodwill is considered to have a uncertian life (i.e. indefiniteuseful life) and is not amortized; it is periodically tested for
impairment -> this impairment testing is different than impairment testing of other intangibles
Two alternatives permitted for the presentation of Cash Flows from Operations (CFO) section:
- Direct Method: presents cash flows as gross receipts minus gross payments arrive at net cash flow from operations.
- Indirect Method: starts with net income or EBIT (from income statement) and adjusts for non-cash items –> arrive at net cash flow from operations.
Some differences in classification - Cash Flows - IFRS vs US GAAP
Growing discrepancy between net income
and CFO can signal:
- Premature recognition of revenues
- Undervaluation of liabilities
- Overcapitalisation of costs
- BUT, need to take into account a company’s life cycle (Growth vs. Maturity)
IAS 10 Events after the reporting period
- For all annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005
- Provide guidance on events that happen after the end of the reporting period but before authorised for issue by directors
- Examples given by IAS 10 are: Settlement of outstanding court case, finalization of bonuses, discovery of fraud or errors, information about recovery of an asset (e.g. NRV of inventory)
IAS 10 - non-adjusting events
- occurring after the end of the
reporting period - Disclosure may be necessary providing details of the nature of the event and estimate of financial effect
- Examples: Major purchase or disposal of assets, destruction of assets caused by a fire, announcement of a major restructuring plan, significant fluctuation in exchange rates, changes in tax rates
IAS 10 - adjusting/non-adjusting events - dividends
- If declared after the end of the reporting period they do not meet definition of a liability
- Should be disclosed in notes to financial statements
Are events which occur after the authorisation date recognised or disclosed in the financial statements?
No