all sorts Flashcards
assimilation
changing a sound to make it closer to its neighbour
/t/ in that man → /ðæpmæn/
Example: in ‘ten pin bowling’, the /n/ in ten becomes bilabial /m/ to ease the transition to the similarly bilabial /p/
Further Point: Another form of assimilation is ‘coalescence’ e.g. ‘Do you..?’ becomes /dju:/
elision
Definition: when a sound disappears to ease the transition between words
Example: In the phrase ‘first time’, the first /t/ disappears
Further Point: this often happens when the end of one word has the same sound as the start of the next one, as in the example above.
Liaison
(a liaison is an intrusion)
Liaison refer to the insertion of a sound between two others. In English, the most common sounds that are most usually inserted, in English, between two words are: /r, j, w/
eg. Here –r– and there;
Speakers of languages that don’t have these ‘semi-consonants’ will either not make the liaison, or substitute another sound from their language to make the link.
Juncture
This is where the consonant at the end of a word carries over to connect with a vowel at the beginning of the next word.
great ape sounds like grey tape → / greɪteɪp /
Reduction
he substitution of the weak central vowel (called schwa /ə/) in unstressed syllables.
Two or/ə/ three;
achievement test
Designed to test what learners have learned over a week, month, term or entire course. Because ___ ___s are directly related to the content of the teaching program, they provide feedback on the teaching-learning process, and are therefore useful data for course evaluation.
placement test
TESTING Definition: a test done to place a student in the correct level/class at the start of a course Example: a multiple‐choice grammar test followed by a spoken interview to ascertain ability Further Point: placement tests can have a 'forward wash' effect, rather than backwash, as they are before the course
diagnostic test
TESTING Definition: a test undertaken to test strengths and weaknesses in skills and systems
Example: a list of incorrect sentences for student to put into correct grammar, thereby testing grammatical areas they are good and bad at
Further Point: the results of these tests are often used as needs analyses, thus dictating future course content
progress test
TESTING Definition: a test to find out if the aims of a course/part of a course have been achieved, and the content absorbed Example: A grammar test at the end of the month, testing what has been covered in class Further Point: also called an achievement test or can be classed as formative testing (during a course)
achievement test
TESTING A form of assessment administered at the end of a course to monitor the learning process. Also called summative tests.
criterion-referenced test
TESTING Test in which the candidate has to achieve a certain agreed standard in order to pass.
norm-referenced test
TESTING
Definition: a test graded in comparison to the whole group of exam takers
Example: A test in which there had to be a certain number of passes, grade Bs, grade As, etc
Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test general ability in an area; not specifically connected to a particular curriculum or course book e.g. FCE
validity
TESTING When a test measures accurately what it is intended to measure. Face, content and construct are different factors to consider.
reliability
TESTING When a test gives consistent results.
Definition: the consistency of the results gained from the test
Example: 2 students of identical level should get the same result, or the same student sitting the test on different occasions
Further Point: we can also talk about ‘marker reliability’ in that the marker should also mark the same across different tests
integrative test
TESTING Definition: a test of various aspects of systems or skills at the same time
Example: a cloze test tests lexis and grammar and discourse at the same time
Further Point: used as a measure of general linguistic ability rather than knowledge of a single item
practicability
TESTING
Definition: how easy the exam/test is to administer and mark
Example: a test that has a cover grid for the marker to quickly see what is right and wrong has high practicality.
Further Point: increasing a test’s practicality often has an inverse effect on its reliability or validity
backwash
TESTING The way a test affects the classroom teaching that leads up to it.
theme
DISCOURSE The way messages are constructed. This is the ‘point of departure’ of the message. It typically expresses known (or given) information, often information that is carried over from a previous sentence. The rest of the sentence is called the rheme, and constitutes the new information.
Definition: the topic of a sentence
Example: “Smoking is bad for your health.” In this sentence ‘smoking’ is the theme of the sentence.
Further Point: Commonly seen with the expression ‘rheme’, which is the comment made on the theme of a sentence
universal grammar
LINGUISTICS The name given to the theory that all languages share certain fundamental principles. Adopted by Noam Chomsky in order to argue that we are genetically programmed with an innate language leaning faculty (language acquisition device).
product approach to writing
METHODOLOGY An approach in which the focus is exclusively on producing a text that reproduces the model learners are initially given. Involves analyzing and imitating models of particular text types.
process approach to writing
METHODOLOGY Approach in which writers do not in fact start with a clear idea of the finished product. The text emerges out of a creative process which includes: planning, drafting and re-drafting, reviewing, publishing.
genre-based approach to writing
METHODOLOGY An approach that is similar to a product approach. Starts with a model text (authentic) that is subjected to analysis and replication. These are closely associated with their contexts of use, and they are analyzed in functional terms as much as in linguistic ones. Has been particularly influential in the teaching of academic writing.
affix, affixation
VOCABULARY An element that is added to a word and which changes its meaning. The process of doing this.
applied linguistics
LINGUISTICS Concerned with the application of linguistic theory to solving language-related problems in the real world. Language planning, speech therapy, lexcography, translation studies, forensic linguistics.
appropriacy
SOCIOLINGUISTICS Using language in a way that is suitable for the context and in a way that meets the expectations of the people you are communicating with.
aspect
GRAMMAR The way the speaker’s ‘view’ of an event is expressed by the verb phrase, regardless of the time of the event itself. 2 of these in English: progressive and perfect.
audiolingualism
METHODOLOGY Became widespread in the US in the 1950s and 60s. Distinctive feature=drilling of sentence patterns. Came from a view of learning as habit formation (behaviorism).
authenticity
LINGUISTICS Became a priority with the communicative approach. The idea of “grade the task, not the text” was born.
behaviorism
PSYCHOLOGY A psychological theory that viewed learning as a sort of habit formation and positive reinforcement. Audiolingualism is the teaching method that is associated with this. stimulus-response-reinforcement.
Devised by Skinner
coherence
DISCOURSE Definition: how IDEAS ‘hang together’ in a text - do they sound logical together or not
Example: the sentence “I’ll take an umbrella in case it rains and say hello to your family.” Is not coherent by itself
Further Point: often confused with ‘cohesion’ which is how language is linked together in a text
cohesion
DISCOURSE Definition: how the LANGUAGE is linked together in a text
Example: cohesive devices and linking expressions, such as ‘However’ at the start of a paragraph to show contrast with the previous paragraph
Further Point: often confused with ‘coherence’ which is how ideas sound logical together in a text
avoidance strategy
SLA Abandoning a message or replacing an original messae with one that is less ambitious.
communicative activity
METHODOLOGY Activity in which real communication occurs. Key features: purposefulness, reciprocity, negotiation, unpredictability, heterogeneity, synchronicity.
communicative approach
METHODOLOGY An umbrella term used to describe a major shift in language teaching that occurred in Europe in the 1970s. Shift away from language systems and toward how these systems are used in real communication. Linguistic competence replaced with focus on communicative competence. Directly related to functional-notional syllabus.
concord
GRAMMAR Also called agreement. The name given to the grammatical relationship whereby the form of one word requires a corresponding form in another. In English, it’s the case with subjects and verbs (I like, He likes…).
corpus
LINGUISTICS A collection of actually occurring texts (either spoken or written) stored and accessed by means of computers, and useful for investigating language use.
dictogloss
METHODOLOGY A form of dictation in which students hear the complete text (short) and then reconstruct it from memory. Learners first work individually, then in pairs, then in groups, each time comparing their versions of the text and negotiating changes.
discourse marker
DISCOURSE Definition: words, polywords, fixed and semi‐fixed phrases which act as ‘signals’ to show the direction and organisation of discourse
Example:” Anyway, …” tells the listener/reader that we are going to return to a previous theme, or possible move to a conclusion
Further Point: Discourse markers appear in both written and spoken discourse
linkers
DISCOURSE Used to connect what has been said to what follows. and, but, or, so, because
drill
METHODOLOGY Repetitive oral practice of a language item, whether a word, a sound, a phrase or a sentence structure. Follow a prompt-response sequence. Were a defining feature of the audiolingual method.
eclecticism
METHODOLOGY Combining techniques and activities from different methods in your teaching. Motivated by different reasons, one being a general distrust of a ‘one size fits all’ method.
Has been criticized on the grounds that it lacks principle and encourages an ‘anything goes’ approach to teaching. Principled ____ subscribes to a ‘post-method’ philosophy.
ellipsis
DISCOURSE Definition: the missing out of words in informal speech or writing. A type of grammatical cohesion.
Example: “Where you going?” Here, the auxiliary ‘are’ has been elided or ‘Having a great time’ in a postcard
Further Point we commonly elide subject pronouns and auxiliaries
error
SLA An instance of the learner’s language that does not conform to accepted norms of usage, and which is attributed to incomplete or faulty learning.
finite verbs
GRAMMAR Show that they are related to a subject by having person, number and tense. “Brad works for his uncle.”
non-finite verbs
GRAMMAR Do not show person, number or tense contrasts. The infinitive, present and past participles are forms of these. “Before working for his uncle, Brad used to work for his father.”
fossilization
SLA When an error becomes a permanent feature of a learner’s interlanguage. In theory such errors are resistant to correction. It has been hypothesized that the lack of instruction (and therefore the lack of a focus on form) is the main cause.
function
LINGUISTICS The communicative purpose of a language item.
form
LINGUISTICS The way a word, phrase or sentence is written or pronounced, independent of its meaning. Often contrasted with function.
genre
LINGUISTICS Any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and recognized by members of a particular culture or sub-culture. As these become established, they acquire a conventionalized structure and often a characteristic vocabulary and grammar. Involves features at macro level (overall organization) and micro level (specific grammatical and functional features).
prescriptive grammar
LINGUISTICS Prescribes correct usage, according to the standards of some group.
descriptive grammar
LINGUISTICS Describes, in a systematic way, the rules that govern how words are combined and sequenced in order to form sentences in a given language. Deal with morphology and syntax. Can be formal or functional.
grammaring
LINGUISTICS A term coined by the applied linguist Diane Larsen-Freeman in order to capture the notion of grammar being more a skill than an inert body of knowledge. The process by which a sequence of words if fine-tuned in order to create a more complex message than mere words can express. Has also been used to describe the way the learner’s mental grammar develops, over time, from a mainly lexical mode into a fuller mode (mirrors L1 acquisition).
grammar-translation method
METHODOLOGY Developed out of a way that classical languages (Greek and Latin) were traditionally taught. It wasn’t fully formalized until the mid-19th century, when it became institutionalized in schools in Germany.
homonyms
Definition: words with the same spelling and the same sound, but a different meaning
Example: the words ‘fair’ (just), ‘fair’ (light‐haired) and ‘fair’ (village festival)
Further Point: often confused with homophones (same sound, different spelling) and homographs (same spelling, different sound)
Homograph
Definition: words with the same spelling, but with a different sound and a different meaning
Example: the words ‘wind’ (gust of air) and ‘wind’ (to turn something to provide power)
Further Point: often confused with homophones (same sound, different spelling) and homonyms (same spelling, same sound)
Antonym
Definition: words that have are the opposite of each other in meaning
Example: the words ‘good’ and ‘evil’ are antonyms of each other
Further Point: can be seen in comparison with synonyms, which are words that have a similar (or the same) meaning
[Can be: Gradable (hot/cold)
Complementary (alive/dead)
have Converseness (buy/sell)
Superordinate/Hypernym
Definition: a word whose meaning includes the meaning of other words
Example: the word ‘red’ is a superordinate of the words ‘scarlet’ and ‘vermillion’
Further Point the words included under a superordinate are called hyponyms (the words ‘scarlet’ and ‘vermillion’ above are co‐hyponyms)
[Usually uncountable => food, meat, furniture, luggage etc]
Homophone
Definition: words with the same sound, but with a different spelling and a different meaning
Example: the words ‘read’ (understand writing) and ‘reed’ (a type of plant)
Further Point: often confused with homonyms (same sound, same spelling) and homographs (same spelling, different sound)
Synonym
Definition: different words with the same (or very similar) meaning
Example: the words ‘amazing’, ‘fantastic’ and ‘wonderful’ are all synonyms meaning ‘very good’
Further Point: : can be seen in comparison with antonyms, which are words that mean the opposite of each other
Metonym
Definition: a word which is used instead of the ‘actual’ word because of the strong cultural associations of the metonym to the thing
Example: the word ‘Hollywood’ is used instead of ‘American Film Industry’
Further Point: can include brand names e.g. a Kleenex for a paper tissue
Hyponym
Definition: a word whose meaning is included in that of another word
Example: ‘crimson’ and ‘scarlet’ are hyponyms within the meaning of the word ‘red’
Further Point hyponyms are included under a ‘superordinate’ - the word ‘red’ in the example above
Polysemy
Definition: the capacity of a word to have many related meanings
Example: ‘sound’ (noise) and sound (adj.=solid)
Further Point the difference between a polyseme and a homonym is that in polysemy words have the same original root e.g. head and head of bed, root and root of problem
Denotation
Definition: the most specific and clear definition of a word
Example: the word ‘bachelor’ denotes an ‘unmarried man’
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to connotation, which is the symbolic or suggested meaning of a word - ‘doesn’t want to get married’ is connoted by the word ‘bachelor’ above.
Collocation
Definition: words which co‐exist with more than random frequency
Example: ‘high‐risk venture’ is a collocation, as they often appear together
Further Point: collocations can have high/low frequency (how often they are used) and can be strong/weak (how ‘faithful’ they are to each other)), so the above example is low frequency, but quite strong
Metaphor
Definition: a figure of speech where you use something in place of another to help describe it
Example: “The man was a mountain.” In this expression, the writer means ‘he was very big’, not that he actually was a mountain
Further Point: Often confused with similes, where you describe something by saying what it is similar to
Affixation
Definition: creating different forms of words by adding prefixes (before the root) and/or suffixes (after the root)
Example: to give an adjective a negative meaning, you often affix the prefix ‘un‐’: ‘happy’ to ‘unhappy’
Further Point: you can add multiple affixes to some root words. E.g. to the word ‘govern’, you could add ‘un’, ‘‐able’ and ‘‐ity’, to make ‘ungorvernability
Idiom
Definition: a phrase with an established figurative meaning
Example: the phrase ‘to beat around the bush’ means to not be direct in approach
Further Point: idioms can be ‘transparent’ (quite literal) or ‘opaque’ (difficult to guess the meaning of)
Simile
Definition: a figure of speech where you describe something by saying what it is similar to, using ‘as’ or ‘like’
Example: “The man was built like a mountain.”
Further Point: Often confused with metaphors, where you describe something by saying it ‘is’ that thing
Context
Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about
Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be ‘running a search on the web’
Further Point: can be confused with ‘co‐text’, which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context
Top‐Down Processing
Definition: applying world or context knowledge in our decoding of the meaning of a text
Example: looking at a title of an article and then thinking about what is known about that ‘topic’ before starting to read
Further Point: can be seen in comparison to ‘Bottom‐up processing’, which starts at individual parts of the text (words, discourse markers, etc)
Interactive Processing
Definition: using a mixture of ‘top‐down’ and ‘bottom‐up’ processing in order to decode meaning
Example: looking for your name on a list of exam results (top‐down= knowing it’s alphabetical, so starting roughly in the right place; bottom up= recognising your name)
Further Point: interactive processing is, in reality, what we normally do when trying to decode a text, although the ‘perfect mixture’ of the two is still up for debate
Skimming
Definition: a reading sub‐skill which involves moving you eyes over the text quickly to get a general idea of the topic, content and main ideas
Example: looking quickly over an essay you find that a) it is about computers, b) the 1st paragraph is on advantages, c) the 2nd paragraph is on disadvantages, and d) that the author thinks computers are good
Further Point: involves interactive processing - through recognition of words combined with prediction.
[Sub headings in writing aid this enormously.]
Co‐text
Definition: the words immediately around a particular item in the text which help to deduce its meaning
Example: on the way back to the market (the underlined words are the co‐text of ‘back’)
Further Point: the co‐text can be the same topic as the context (they are about the same things) or can be a digression away from the context
Bottom‐up Processing
Definition: processing a text starting with the smaller elements of a text (words, sounds, etc) then building upwards to decode the text as a whole
Example: listening or reading for the times of a particular train
Further Point: can be seen in comparison to ‘Top‐down’ processing, which starts from ‘global knowledge’ to process meaning
Schemata
Definition: a mental representation of a situation or the context of a text
Example: If you see an article with the title ‘riding a bike’, you picture the act of riding a bike, which brings to mind words and possible situations involved with it e.g. falling off, mending a puncture, etc
Further Point once our schemata are activated, we can predict information and language within familiar circumstances, topics, etc, which aids top‐down processing
Scanning
Definition: a reading sub‐skill which involves looking through a text very quickly to find specific information
Example: you want to find the birth and death year of a famous person, so you look very quickly through a text focusing on years until you find it
Further Point: often involves bottom‐up processing in that you are trying to find specific word items. You know what you are looking for.
Inductive Approach
Definition: an approach to teaching grammar where students are given examples from which to work out the grammar rules
Example: The Audiolingual Method is an example of an inductive approach to grammar
Further Point: the idea is that by working out rules themselves the rules are more memorable as there is greater ‘cognitive depth’ [The students ‘own’ the rules. Also reflects L1 acquisition.]
Deductive Approach
Definition: an approach to teaching grammar where students are given the ‘rules’ from the beginning and then apply these to form their own examples
Example: the Grammar‐Translation approach is an example of a deductive approach to grammar
Further Point: can be seen as ‘time‐saving’ and as a more adult approach. [Teacher-led. Traditional students/classes may well expect this from their teacher.]
Guided Discovery
Definition: activities which involve students ‘working something out’, often in a student‐centred way
Example: students are given some rules and are told to find examples of them in a text (deductive guided discovery)
Further Point: guided discovery could be either inductive or deductive
Active Voice
Definition: putting the agent (the doer of the action) as the subject of the verb
Example: “I went to the shops.” This sentence is in the active voice
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to the passive voice (the object is put before the verb)
Passive Voice
Definition: putting the object of the action before the verb, and possibly not mentioning the agent at all
Example: “John was eaten by a crocodile.” In this sentence, the crocodile is the agent of the action, but comes after the verb.
Further Point: often used to maintain the focus on the object of an action, rather than the agent e.g. John (above)
Causative
Definition: a form of passive in which the subject has something done by someone else
Example: “I had my hair cut (by a hairdresser)” is a causative
Further Point: there needs to be a possessive (‘my hair’ in the sentence above) in a causative
Clause
Definition: the largest grammatical unit smaller than a sentence
Example: “I went to the shops and then I went home.” - ‘I went to the shops’ is one clause in this sentence
Further Point: Sentences will have a ‘main clause’ (the main idea) and a ‘subordinate’ clause (a lesser idea), or possibly the clauses will be ‘co‐ordinate’ (they are both/all of equal import as in above example)
Relative Clause
Definition: a post‐modification of a noun that adds extra information about the noun
Example: “A hospital is a place where sick and injured people are given help.”
Further Point: Relative clauses can be ‘defining’ (you need the information to define exactly what you’re talking about) or ‘non‐defining’ (the information is extra and unnecessary)
Cleft Sentence
Definition: a sentence split in two to foreground one element of the sentence
Example: “It was the Butler who did it!” compared to “the Butler did it”
Further Point: the purpose of a cleft sentence is to add emphasis
Tone Unit
Definition: an utterance, or part of an utterance, with one tonic stress
Example: ‘He lives in LONDON.’ The LON syllable is the tonic stress, so the whole phrase is one tone unit
Further Point: The tonic stress is usually at the end of the tonic unit because English is end‐weighted (important information often comes at the end)
Intrusion
Definition: when a new sound appears between words to ease the linking between words
Example: In the phrase ‘for any old iron’, an extra /r/ appears between ‘for’ and ‘any’; and an extra /j/ appears between ‘any’ and ‘old’. So:
Further Point: Rhotic speakers always pronounce this ‘extra /r/’ sound
Phoneme
Definition: the smallest element of sound in a language that produces a recognisable difference in meaning
Example: /k/ and /g/ are both phonemes
Further Point: phonemes can be aspirated or unaspirated
Articulation
Definition: the physical ‘mechanics’ of uttering phonemes
Example: by pushing your lips together and then expelling air in an ‘explosive’ way, you create either the sound /b/ (voiced) or /p/ (unvoiced)
Further Point: We can talk about place and manner of articulation
Diphthong
Definition: two vowel sounds produced together so that they are defined as one sound
Example: / ɪə / and / aʊ / are both diphthongs
Further Point: As opposed to monopthongs, which are pure, single vowel sounds
Place of Articulation
Definition: the site where a sound is formed
Example: in the sound /p/, articulation occurs at the lips, making it a bilabial sound
Further Point: you can have bilabial (lips), labiodental (lips and teeth), dental (teeth), alveolar (tooth ridge), palatal (hard palate), velar (soft palate), and glottal (gap in vocal cords) sounds
Manner of Articulation
Definition: how you make the sound at the site of obstruction
Example: In the sound /p/, you explode air out of your mouth, making it a plosive sound
Further Point: you can have plosive (by explosion), fricative (by friction), affricative (explosion ending in friction), nasal (through the nose) and approximant (little or no interruption - often called semi‐vowels)
Anaphoric Reference
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion ‐ something that refers back to a previously mentioned item in a text.
Example: “Susan lives just round the corner. She’s my best friend.” ‘She’ refers back to ‘Susan’
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to cataphoric reference (refers forward) and exophoric reference (refers to something ‘outside’ the text, which is common knowledge)
Exophoric Reference
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion ‐ referring to something ‘outside’ of the text, which is commonly known by all
Example: “Share prices slumped in the City today.” ‘The city’ refers to the economic centre of a country, which is assumed knowledge.
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back within the text) and [cataphoric] reference (refers forward within the text)
Substitution
Definition: use of (usually) determiners and adverbs of place and time to substitute a previous element to avoid repetition. A type of grammatical cohesion.
Example: “Shall we meet at the King’s Head pub?” “Okay, see you there.” ‘There’ is substituted for ‘the King’s Head pub’
Further Point: very similar in function to anaphoric reference, but that is usually demonstratives or pronouns and the definite article
Parallelism
Definition: repetition of all or part of a grammatical structure or pattern
Example: “We will fight them on the beaches. We will fight them on the landing grounds. We will fight them in the fields and in the trees.” Here, ‘we will’ has been paralleled again and again.
Further Point: normally used for dramatic effect
Cataphoric Reference
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion ‐ something that refers forward to another thing mentioned later in the text
Example: “Given that it is bad for you, smoking still remains very popular.” ‘It’ refers forward to ‘smoking’
Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back) and exophoric reference (refers outside the text)
Rheme
Definition: the comment made on the topic of a sentence
Example: “Smoking is bad for your health.” In this sentence ‘it is bad for your health’ is the rheme of the sentence.
Further Point: often becomes the theme of the next sentence e.g. Smoking is bad for your health. Your health can be affected in numerous ways.
Adjacency Pair
Definition: paired phrases (or triplets) which occur together in often fairly fixed ways
Example: “How are you?”
“Fine, thanks. And you?”
Further Point: There can be a ‘preferred’ response (as in the example) or a ‘dispreferred’ response (such as “Not so good actually”)
Paralinguistic Features
Definition: non‐verbal gestures, body language and facial expressions
Example: (pointing to something and raising an eyebrow)
Further Point: most paralinguistic features are subconscious. Others can provide subtle shifts in meaning of what has been verbally said.
Circumlocution
Definition: finding other ways of saying what you want to say when you don’t know a word
Example: “It’s a…um…a little house made of wood that’s in your garden and you put things in that are useful.” (“It’s a shed.”)
Further Point: often called paraphrasing
Backchannel Responses
Definition: responses and comments from a listener to show that they’re actively listening and which contribute to ‘fuel’ conversation
Example: “really?…uh‐huh…yeh…”
Further Point: backchannel responses motivate the speaker to continue and show the speaker that the listener is interested
Fillers
Definition: words that speakers use to ‘fill’ space in a conversation and buy the speaker ‘thinking time’
Example: “Well, let me see…that’s a good question…” can all be viewed as fillers before a statement of opinion.
Further Point: people often use fillers when asked something unexpected or when ‘playing for time’
[In speaking tests, it is important markers distinguish between fillers and pauses caused by lack of fluency.
Intrinsic motivation
Definition: a desire to learn based on some kind of internal requirement or satisfaction
Example: a learner who comes to English classes because s/he loves learning languages
Further Point: can be balanced against ‘extrinsic’ motivation, where the impetus comes from outside
Extrinsic motivation
Definition: requirements for learning which come from ‘outside’
Example: a need to learn to get a job, pass an exam or because parents have made you
Further Point: can be balanced against ‘intrinsic’ motivation, where the impetus comes from inside
Proficiency test
Definition: a test to discover a learner’s general abilities in skills and systems, not related to a particular course or text or programme of study
Example: Cambridge Main Suite exams like PET, FCE or CAE
Further Point: Proficiency tests can be ‘norm‐referenced’ (graded in comparison to other test takers), or ‘criterion‐referenced’ (graded to explicit criteria)
Aptitude test
Definition: a test of a student’s natural ability to learn a language (in this case)
Example: in pronunciation, a test to check the ability to imitate/distinguish sounds in an unknown language
Further Point: clearly it is much simpler to test aptitude in systems like grammar, pronunciation or lexis, rather than skills
Face validity
Definition: if a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test (impression)
Example: a learner may consider a pronunciation test which requires no speaking to not have face validity
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high face validity or low face validity
Construct validity
Definition: how much a test tests what it is supposed to and nothing else (precision)
Example: a gap‐fill where the gaps have other possible answers, apart from the desired answers, is less construct valid than one where there is only one answer per gap
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high construct validity or low construct validity
Content validity
Definition: to what degree a test tests what it is supposed to (thoroughness)
Example: a test of present simple with more examples, including +, ‐, ?, short answer, has higher content validity than one with few + examples only
Further Point: content validity also refers to how thoroughly a test reflects the course of study before it e.g. a grammar test following an integrated systems‐skills course has low content validity
Predictive validity
Definition: how much a test accurately predicts how the student will use the language in real life
Example: writing a dialogue of buying something in a shop tests what language a student would use in that real‐life situation
Further Point: we can talk about a test having high predictive validity or low predictive validity
Objective test
Definition: a test that where there can only be right or wrong answers i.e. no subjective judgement on part of the marker
Example: a multiple‐choice test, where only one of the option is correct
Further Point: the fact that answers can only be right or wrong means that the test will have higher reliability
Direct test
Definition: a test of the language point or skill by focusing just on that language point/skill
Example: testing use of linkers with a gap fill
Further Point: High face validity for the student
Subjective test
Definition: a test that allows a variety of answers to be given and relies on a marker to ‘judge’ subjectively the correctness of the answer
Example: writing a letter for a marker to grade
Further Point: the fact that two markers may vary widely in their judgement means that these tests will have lower reliability
Indirect test
Definition: a test of something within the context of something else
Example: testing a student’s use of linkers by getting them to write a discursive essay.
Further Point: Can be oral or written, often in the form of an informal test, e.g. students talk about their holiday experiences as a way to test their use of the present perfect / past simple tenses in the lead in stage of a lesson
Summative evaluation
Definition: evaluation after a course / study programme
Example: an end of course test
Further Point: can be compared to formative evaluation, which is done during a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself.
Cloze test
Definition: a test where a number of words have been removed from a text. Students have to complete the text
Example: FCE Use of English Part 2, where students have fill the gaps left in the text
Further Point: traditionally, the missing words were every so many words (e.g. every 9th word was missing) - there are also open and multiple choice cloze tests
Task‐Based Learning (TBL)
Definition: [N. Prabhu] an approach based on the belief that students learn by using, with a focus on being fluent first and accurate later
Example: students try a communicative task, the teacher provides help and upgrades language, the students have a better go at the task
Further Point: comes out of the belief that ‘teaching is not the same as learning’ - led to a move away from the PPP model
[1. Prabhu noticed that his students could learn language just as easily with a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on linguistic questions.
2. Can be considered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).]
modality
GRAMMAR The lexical and grammatical ways used by speakers to express their attitude to what they are saying. Can be divided into two groups: extrinsic and intrinsic.
intrinsic: reflects speaker’s attitude to the necessity or desirability of the situation; allows us to express a range of interpersonal meanings.
extrinsic: the speaker’s assessment of the likelihood of the situation; allows us to talk about ‘the world out there.’
morpheme
PHONOLOGY The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Mean ing ful. Mean can stand on its own (free morpheme), but ing and ful can’t (bound morphemes). Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.
morphology
morphology
phatic language
DISCOURSE Language whose purpose is to smooth the conduct of social relations. Unlike transactional language, this language has an interpersonal function. Typically formulaic, as in the case of greetings, and is a characteristic of what is called small talk. Plays a very important role in the formation and maintenance of social groupings.
phoneme
PHONOLOGY One of the distinctive sounds of a particular language. It is not any sound, but it is a sound that, to speakers of a language, cannot be replaced with another sound without causing a change in meaning.
allophone
PHONOLOGY A phonetic variation of the same phoneme. Does not affect meaning
pragmatics
LINGUISTICS The study of how language is used and interpreted by its learners in real-world situations.
pronoun
GRAMMAR The relatively small word class of words that can be used to substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. They include: personal pronouns possessive pronouns demonstrative pronouns interrogative pronouns relative pronouns indefinite pronouns reflexive pronouns reciprocal pronouns quantifiers They aid in the overall cohesion of a text.
scaffolding
SLA The temporary interactional support that is given to learners while their language system is under construction. It is this support that enables them to perform a task at a level beyond their present competence.
schemata
SYCHOLOGY The way that knowledge about a topic or a concept is represented and organized in the mind. They help us to make sense of experience, and hence they are crucial in comprehension. Also used to refer to the temporary mental picture that a reader or listener constructs when processing a text.
semantics
LINGUISTICS The study of meaning, including the way words relate to the things that they refer to in the real world. In language teaching the focus is on the meaning relationship between words, such as similarity and oppositeness. Often contrasted with pragmatic meaning, in that it focuses on the literal meaning instead of the effect.
zone of proximal development
PSYCHOLOGY This is the ‘window of opportunity’ where the learner is not yet able to solve a problem independently, but can do so with the assistance of others.
The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept introduced yet not fully developed by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky
subordination
GRAMMAR One way of linking clauses so that one clause is embedded in another. This embedded clause is said to be dependent on the other clause. The conjunctions when, even if, although, because, while, after, unless are all used for this.
There are 3 clauses:
adverbial: act like an adverbial in a sentence and give extra info about time, manner, reason, conditions, etc.
relative: attached to a noun phrase, which they modify by providing extra information.
reported: report statements, questions, thoughts and which typically begin with that or if or a wh word.
syntax
GRAMMAR The rules for sequencing words so as to show their relationships of meaning within sentences. Contrasts with morphology. Together these make up what is traditionally known as grammar. Traditionally taught by the process of parsing sentences.
tense
GRAMMAR Refers to the way that verbs are inflected to express a relation with time. The relation between time and __ is not an exact match. Grammatical ___ and notional time are not the same thing. There are only really 2 of these in English: the present and the past. This combines with aspect to create the variety of verb structures in English that are commonly mistaken as its different ___s. A focus on them has traditionally dominated course design.
