ALL SOCIAL STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES Flashcards
3 arguments supporting agency theory
- Bushman
He recreated Milgram study but varied the authoritativeness of the authority figure
When the authority figure had more perceived status (i.e uniform) obedience rates were higher - Meeus & Raajmakers
Study of obedience showed that pps were prepared to inflict psychological harm when instructed to do so by perceived authority figure (levels of obedience were 92%)
As psychological harm is much more common than physical harm this research might have more ecological validity than other obedience research and can explain real life experiences - Application to real life (My Lai Massucre) - face validity
In his court martial, following the Mai Lai massacre, Lt Calley claimed he was simply following orders.
This justification has been cited in many real life cases of atrocities and offers some support for agency theory involving displacement of responsibility.
2 arguments against agency theory
- Zimbardos Stanford prison experiment
Some argue that Milgram theories are not necessarily explained by being in an agentic state but more by individual differences in personality.
Zimbardo et al showed that within a few days ‘guards’ inflicted rapidly escalating cruelty on increasingly submissive prisoners despite the fact that there was no obvious authority figure instructing them to do so - Circular argument
Agency theory cannot be defined independently from obedience - people obey because they are in an agentic state but are in an agentic state because they obey
2 arguments supporting social impact theory
- Sedikides & Jackson
In a New York zoo, Visitors were instructed to not lean on the railing.
The uniform of the zoo keeper influenced the obedience shown by people
Uniform = 58% obedience
Casual clothing = fell to 35% - Milgram, Bickman & Berkowitz
Measured the relationship between the size of a crowd and the impact it would have on peoples behaviour, standing on a busy city street looking up at a building, and the response of passersby. As the size of the crowd was increased a greater proportion of passersby adopted the behaviour of the crowd, until a plateau effect occured.
This supports the theory as it provides evidence for the psychological law
2 arguments against social impact theory
- It ignores individual differences
Some people might be more resistant to social influence, others might be more easily persuaded, these factors are likely to impact affect the impact on an individual - It ignores the nature of social interactions
The theory disregards the active nature of social interactions and what the target themselves bring to the social situation (it is a static rather then dynamic theory as it does not take into account any interaction) - the nature of the interactions may be influencing the behaviour
3 arguments supporting social identity theory
- Tajfels study results
His results showed that pps always showed in group preference even direct competition - Fein & Spencer
They gave pps false feedback on an IQ test giving them high or low self- esteem and found pps with low self-esteem rated a Jewish applicant less favourable for a job than an Italian candidate (in-group preference). Whereas pps with high self-esteem showed no bias - this shows self-esteem affects out-group hostility - Cialdini et al
He studied US university football fans
and found that supporters referred to the team as “us” or “them” depending on whether their team had lost or won. This demonstrates that their personal identity is affected by their association with the football team (social identity)
2 arguments against social identity theory
- Weatherall
He observed New Zealand Polynesians and found them more likely to favour the out-group then show biased towards the in-group. This demonstrates how cultures who emphasise collectivism and cooperation are less likely to show group prejudice, therefore we must not conclude that conflict is the inevitable consequence of group membership and identification - Dobbs & Crano
Where individuals perceived that their group was the majority there was much less in group favouritism and outgroup hostility compared to when they were perceived in group as a minority. This suggests that discrimination and prejudice is more complex than SIT
3 arguments supporting realistic conflict theory
- Robbers cave study results
- Ember & Ember
They studied other cultures and found that in tribal societies hostility increases when social or natural conditions cause competition for resources. For example, when famine occurs conflict and violence increased - Doty et al
Found that US levels of authoritarianism varied in the late 1970s-1980s i.e - during the Cold War. This is presumably because of the perceived threat from external sources and communism
1 argument against realistic conflict theory
- Failed Superordinate goals
Superordinate goals can’t always solve prejudice. If the goal is not successfully completed, prejudice can increase, as each group blames their other for failure
2 arguments supporting authoritarian personality as an explanation of obedience
- Elms & Milgram
They interviewed Milgrams participants and found that pps who were really obedient/went to 450 V scored higher on authoritarianism tests - Dambrun & Vantine
They created a simulation of Milgrams experiment using a virtual environment/computer simulation and found that authoritarianism was linked to obedience, as high authoritarian scores = less likely to withdraw from the study
2 arguments against authoritarian personality as an explanation of obedience
- Elms & Milgram
Elms and Milgram also found that pps who went up to 450 V and scored high on the authoritarianism test, also had a loving relationship with their parents
(going against Adorno’s claims) - Chan
Found that refugees of the Chinese revolution have high authoritarian personalities, but gradually changed when they moved to the USA. Their authoritarian personality is not due to family but developed from school (going against Adorno’s claims). Their personalities also changed after moving to the USA, suggesting that authoritarian personalities are not fixed
1 argument against locus of control as an explanation of obedience
- Schurz
- He conducted a study similar to Milgrams procedure instructing Austrian pps to give painful doses of ultrasound to a female students. There was a little different in locus of control between those who obeyed and those who descended, suggesting locus of control has a little effect on obedience levels
1 argument against locus of control as an explanation of obedience
- Oliner & Oliner
Interviewed 2 groups of non-Jewish people who lived through the Holocaust, comparing the 406 who had protected and rescued Jews from the Nazis with 126 who had not acted. They found that ‘rescuers’ had scores demonstrating high internal locus of control and scored high on measures of social responsibility
2 arguments supporting momentum of compliance as an explanation of obedience
- Milgram’s pps all went to 450v if they passed 300v
As requirements of obedience increase, the pps feel obligated to continue, they have a commitment, and to stop half way, might suggest to them, that they were wrong to start in the first place (point of no return)
Through Milgram’s study’s, research Has found that the earlier the pps challenged the experimenter, the more likely they were to be fully defiant, supporting the idea of momentum of compliance - Application - Nazi Germany
Hitler introduced a gradual program of persecution
1 argument supporting uniform as an explanation of obedience
- Bickman
He had 3 confederates dress in 3 different outfits, a jacket and tie, a milkman, and a security guard. Confederates asked people to pick up a piece of litter. People were twice as likely to obey the one dressed as a security guard then the one dressed in a jacket and tie
1 argument supporting location as an explanation of obedience
- Milgrams variation
study takes place in a run-down office block instead of the prestigious Yale university
Obedience dropped to 47.5%
1 argument supporting witnessing disobedience as an explanation of obedience
- Milgrams variation
In his variation with 3 teachers (2 disobedient confederates and 1 naive pps) 90% of naive pps also disobeyed after witnessing the confederates. This shows that where theres social support for resisting obedience, people find it easier to disobey
1 argument supporting the frustration-aggression theory as an explanation of prejudice
- Hovland & Sears
Reported high correlations between the number of lynching of black people and cotton prices. They suggested that the farmers frustration with the decrease in cotton prices was displaced onto black people, as they could not confront the real source of frustration (the government)
1 argument against the frustration-aggression theory as an explanation of prejudice
- Frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression, some people might respond by becoming more determined or depressed
1 argument supporting authoritarian personality as an explanation of prejudice
Rubinstein
Measured the relationship between authoritarianism, religion and gender attitudes in 165 Jewish students and found those high in authoritarianism tended to be more religious and have more traditional views to gender. Therefore there were more prejudice towards other groups and non-traditional views
1 argument against authoritarian personality as an explanation of prejudice
Doty et al - supports RCT instead
US levels of authoritarianism varied during the Cold War. This was due to the perceived threat from external sources, supporting RCT not authoritarianism as an explanation for prejudice, because authoritarianism would reflect a relatively fixed internal personality traits and so prejudice should not be so influenced by external factors (levels returned to their normal level once the war was over)
1 argument supporting culture as a factor affecting obedience
Hamilton & Sanders
Conducted a study with US, Japanese, and Russian pps presenting them with scenarios where a crime was either an individualist idea or the order of a superior. Pps had to attribute a level of responsibility for each scenario
The US pps attributed more personal responsibility to individualists acting criminally under orders than Japanese and Russian pps did
(thus obedience might be more important in Japanese and Russian culture than US culture). Obeying even criminally wrong orders might be seen as appropriate more in Japan and Russia than in the US
1 argument against culture as a factor affecting obedience
Milgrams variation in India
He replicated to study in India Where PDI scores are 77%. Obedience levels in India were only 42.5% (In his original study obedience in the US was 63%)
This contradicts the expectation of the PDI relationship to obedience
1 argument supporting gender as a factor affecting obedience
Sheridan & King - live puppies
Adapted Milgrams experiment, using live puppies as the learner. They found all 13 female pps were much more compliant with the demands made by the authority figure
Females = 100% obedience rate
Males = 54% obedience rate
1 argument against gender as a factor affecting obedience
Blass
He studied 9 other replications of Milgram’s study which also had male and female pps.
Consistent with Milgrams own findings 8/9 times, there was no evidence of any gender differences regarding obedience
