All other relevant information

Question 1

____ and ____ were created by the big bang. All other elements were made by ___

Answer 1

hydrogen, helium, stars

Question 2

the total amount of power hitting each square meter of the earth’s atmosphere

Answer 2

solar constant

Question 3

The solar constant includes all ____, not just infrared heat. It also includes the radiation that hits the top of the _____, in other words, the energy that doesn’t make it through.

Answer 3

radiation, atmosphere

Question 4

In 5BC, it was thought that the sun was a burning hunk of ___. In the late 19th century, it was hypothesized that the sun was a burning lump of ____.

Answer 4

metal, coal

Question 5

John waterson calculated that the sun would only stay for about ____ years if it was powered by a ____ process such as _____. Moreover, by this time, geologists had shown that the earth must be at least ____ of years old, thus the sun must be powered by some other source. Waterson argued that _____ falling into the sun kept it hot

Answer 5

20,000, chemical, combustion, millions, meteors

Question 6

Lord Kelvin proposed that the sun was powered by _____. However, the lifetime calculated by this gravitational energy was only ______ million years. Since geologists at this time argued that the earth was at least a ____ years old, this had to be wrong

Answer 6

gravity, 18, billion

Question 7

Eddington noticed that if you could rearrange the electrons and protons in 1 kg of ____ you would only get ____ g of helium. This meant that some of the energy was _____, and when this energy was calculated, the lifespan of the star was found to be _____ billion years

Answer 7

hydrogen, 993, lost, 70

Question 8

the equilibrium between the pressure inside the sun and the force of gravity

Answer 8

hydrostatic equilibrium

Question 9

From the middle outwards of the sun, there is the ____, then the _____ zone, then the ______ zone. On the surface are some ____ and ____. The core is ____% of the size of the solar interior and is through to have a temperature of ___ million K, the hottest part of the sun. In the radiative zone, light generated in the core travels very ____, because. of the high ___ of matter in this region that causes photons to change ___ and lose energy. In the convective zone, the _______ at the bottom bubbles to the surface where it loses its heat to space, then cools and ____.

Answer 9

core, radiative, convection, sunspots, granulation, 20, 15, slowly, density, direction, plasma, sinks

Question 10

Temperatures in the center of the sun usually only create enough energy from protons to get within ______ m of each other. Moreover, protons usually run to a wall of ___ and bounce off of it. Sometimes in ___ ___, sometimes they break through it, but even then almost always nothing happens

Answer 10

10^-12, repulsion, quantum mechanics

Question 11

Rarely, a two H atoms will stick and a ____ and ____ will be expelled, leaving _____. Then this will stick with another H atom, expel a ____ ___, and produce _____. This will combine with itself (made from a repeat of the previous reactions), to create two ____ and one ____

Answer 11

positron, neutrino, deuterium, gamma ray, H, Helium-3, H, He-4

Question 12

about ___% of the helium produced in the sun is generated with ___, ___ and ___ acting as a catalyst. In ____ stars, the core is hotter and the CNO cycle dominates

Answer 12

2, C, N, O, larger

Question 13

While everything regarding hydrogen fusion occurs deep inside the sun hidden from view, the ____ expelled pass through our bodies in quantities of ____ from the sun /second. This is because neutrinos react very ___ with ordinary matter, so they move direct to the sun’s ____, and escape the sun ____s after they are created

Answer 13

neutrinos, 10^11, little, surface, 2

Question 14

positrons expelled from fusion reactions will immediately be ___, when they collide with a nearby ___-

Answer 14

annihilated, electron

Question 15

The gamma rays that are produced from fusion reactions collide with _____ of matter and ___ energy to them. The particle emits another photon, but with ____ energy than the one absorbed, thus, this continues until it reaches the ____, and become many separate lower energy photons of ____.

Answer 15

particles, transfer, lower, surface, sunlight

Question 16

The first step of sticking two _____ together in nuclear fusion, takes the _____. Taking the mass ___ in the transformation, ____ J of energy is produced with just 1kg of H

Answer 16

H, longest, lost, 6.4x10^14J

Question 17

In 1960s, Raymond Davis built a ____ detector deep underground. It consisted of a ___ that held 100,000 gallons of _____ fluid. As a neutrino passes through it, it would react with a ___ atom to make a radioactive ____ atom. The experiment consistently found ___ of the expected neutrinos, and it was later discovered that they come in __ different flavours

Answer 17

neutrino, tank, dry-cleaning, Cl, Ar, 1/3, 3

Question 18

The closest star system to the sun is ____ ___, and it is a ____. the ___ member, ____, of the triple is very similar to the sun. Alpha centauri __ and ___ are a pair (binary). proxima centauri is a ____ ____ that orbits a and b, and is the nearest to the earth

Answer 18

alpha centauri, triple, brightest, a, a, b, companion star

Question 19

How fast a star is moving across the sky

Answer 19

proper motion

Question 20

In cooler stars, the temperatures are too low for certain elements like ___ and ___ to be excited, so we can’t see their spectral lines. in hot stars, metals are ____, so neutral metal spectral lines are not seen. ____ spectral lines are also not seen in hot stars because they are _______.

Answer 20

hydrogen, helium, ionized, molecule, destroyed

Question 21

When two stars circle around each other we can determine the ____ of star 1 by the time it takes to pass behind star 2, and we can determine the radius of star 2, by the ____ that star 1 is behind star 2 before it emerges again

Answer 21

radius, duration

Question 22

Stars along the main sequence that are ____ are also big and ____. Stars that are not as big are ___ and most ____

Answer 22

bright, rare, faint, common

Question 23

Binary star systems can be used to determine the ____ of the different stars. It can also be used to infer ____ ____ by looking at how spectral lines are ____ in energy as they orbit each other (____ shift)

Answer 23

mass, radial velocity, shifting, doppler

Question 24

For every 1 kg of H converted to He, you get ___ g of energy. However, for every kg of He converted to O, you only get ___g of energy, meaning nuclear fusion gets less and less ____. ___ is the peak, afterwards, no energy can be generated with fusion.

Answer 24

7, 1, efficient, iron

Question 25

By percent mass, most of the matter in the universe is ___ ____, or ___ ____.

Answer 25

dark matter, dark energy

Question 26

Only ____% of the mass of the universe is in atoms, while only 5% of the mass in atoms is in _____. Only 25% of the stars are ___ like our sun, and only ___% of the mass of stars is in planets

Answer 26

4.6%, stars, young, 0.1

Question 27

A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star

Answer 27

planet

Question 28

There are planets that are ___ ___ between stars, but they inhabitable

Answer 28

free floating

Question 29

Natural satellites (moons) are round but do not orbit the _____, and dwarf planets have not ____ ___ ____

Answer 29

sun, cleared their neighborhood

Question 30

Many “planets” were discovered in _____s, before ___ were demotioned, and _____ was declared a dwarf planet

Answer 30

1850, asteroids, pluto

Question 31

Planets discovered early on were planets ____ to the sun. This is because the change in ______ _____ of the sun by the planets were measured with ___ ___ (doppler shift). The planets closest to the star produce the greatest effect.

Answer 31

closest, radial velocity, stellar spectroscopy

Question 32

measuring the orbit of a planet by measuring the slight dimming of a star when one of its planets crosses over the face of it

Answer 32

transits

Question 33

Dwarf planets take much longer than the age of the _____ __ to clear their neighbourhoods.

Answer 33

solar system,

Question 34

The distance between orbits today, are just about the size of ___ _____. This implies that perhaps there were more planets in the ____, but they were kicked out because there was no space

Answer 34

cleared regions, past

Question 35

Planets with ____ ____ similar to earth are rare

Answer 35

orbital period

Question 36

When the sunlight hits a planet, the ____ sunlight heats the surface, while some sunlight is _____ away by the surface and _____. The planet then emits ____ ____ in all directions. In equilibrium, the energy ___ is equal to the energy _____. Accounting for the ___, or the reflected sunlight, we can calculate the equilibrium temperature

Answer 36

absorbed, reflected, atmosphere, thermal radiation, absorbed, emitted, albedo

Question 37

There are not that many planets with a ____ like earth’s. Those with similar radii may also have higher ___ ___. Those with too small of a radius has too ___ of a gravity, while those with too ___ of a radius has too ____ of a gravity

Answer 37

radii, equilibrium temperature, small, big

Question 38

Brown dwarfs have masses between ____ and ____x that of Jupiter. They are thought to have fused ____ and ____ .

Answer 38

13, 80, deuterium, lithium

Question 39

Gas giants have gaseous ___ ____> They are 90% ___ and ____, and have ___ cores of about ___ earth masses. After the cores formed, they ____ gas quickly. because they rotate so fast, they are not ____. They also have many ____ and sometimes _____. These satellites may experience large ____ from the planets

Answer 39

surface layers, hydrogen, helium, rocky, 10, accreted, round, satellites, rings, tides

Question 40

ice giants are only about ___% of H and He by mass. They grew by accreting material that was ____ during the the epoch of planet formation. These materials have freezing points above _____K, such as water ____ and _____. These planets have ____ outer layers similar to the gas giants. They are ____ ____, have high-speed ____ winds, ______ _____, and large scale _____. It is unclear how they form but are quite ____ in the galaxy

Answer 40

20, frozen, 100, ammonia, methane, gaseous, long lived, equatorial, polar vortices, circulation, common

Question 41

Terrestrial planets each have an ____ core of varying size. The core is surrounded by a ____ mantle, They may have substantial ___ and ____.

Answer 41

iron, silicate, ocean, atmosphere

Question 42

Uranus and neptune are much ____ than jupiter and saturn but each have a core of ____, ___ and ____. They were less _____ at attracting H and He gas, so they have much smaller ____ in proportion to their cores.

Answer 42

smaller, rock, metal, ice, efficient, atmospheres

Question 43

Giant planets have a lot of ____ and thus has ____ chemistry, while terrestrial planets have a lot of ____ and thus ____ chemistry

Answer 43

H, reducing, O, oxidizing

Question 44

Most moons are in the ____ solar system and have compositions similar to the ___ of giant planets around which they orbit Most of these moons ____ during formation and have cores of ___ and ___, with upper layers and crusts of cold, hard ____. the exception is our moon, which has a composition similar to ___ ____

Answer 44

outer, cores, differentiated, rock, metal, ice, terrestrial planets

Question 45

A thick ___ atmosphere keeps surface temperatures at ____ K on Venus, while on mars, the temperatures are generally ____ freezing, and the air very ___ and dry

Answer 45

CO2, 700, below, thin

Question 46

The outer layers of jovian planets are neither ___ or ___ enough for human habitation

Answer 46

warm, solid

Question 47

Dust is mostly made of ___, ___ and ____ particles, and can be ___ or ____. When the density is high, it ___ the light from behind

Answer 47

C, O, Silicate, absorbed, scattered, block

Question 48

A ___ dust cloud must be more ___ to collapse because the ____ of the gas will resist gravitational energy. A _____ cloud must also be more massive to collapse, due to the ___ ____ that resists collapse. It is easier for a cloud to collapse along ____ ___ so it pancakes

Answer 48

hotter, massive, pressure, rotating, angular momentum, field lines

Question 49

Stars are often born within groups known as _____. All stars in this group have roughly the same ___, ____ and _____.

Answer 49

clusters, distance, age, composition

Question 50

From typically the largest number of members to typically smallest, stellar groups are ____ ___, or stars forming in groups of millions at a time, ___ ___, and _____ ______.

Answer 50

globular clusters, open clusters, OB associations

Question 51

objects more massive than our sun form into stars much ____, over tens of thousands of years. Some stars are too small to burn __ for fuel, and these are known as ___ ____. These are more ____ than planets, form in their own ____ rather than in the protoplanetary disk of another star, and have a period of ____ fusion

Answer 51

faster, H, brown dwarfs, bigger, clumps, deuterium

Question 52

In protoplanetary disks, you can see multiple ___ and ___ that indicate the presence of emerging ____, which are sweeping their orbits clear of ___ and ____

Answer 52

rings, gaps, planets, dust, gas

Question 53

Within 2-3 AU, the dust is made of ____ and ___, materials that can ___ out of gas. This makes up the ___ planet material. Outside of 2-3 AU, it is ___. and there is a lot of ____.

Answer 53

iron, silicates, freeze, inner, colder, ice

Question 54

There are two components in the protoplanetary disk: ___ which feels ___ from the protostar and ___. This rotates around the star more ____. Then there is dust, which feels ____ from the protostar and ___ from the gas. The dust settles to the ____ in 10^3 years and clump together. However, it is ____ by the interaction with gas. Normally, these clumps would ___ into the star before the planetesimals could grow past ____m.

Answer 54

gas, gravity, pressure, slowly, gravity, drag, midplane, slowed, fall, 1,

Question 55

Once the clumps grow to ____ km in radius,____ helps. Bigger planetesimals can accrete more material, so the larger bodies grow ____. The accretion stops when the mass of the large ____ dominates

Answer 55

1, gravity, exponentially, embryos

Question 56

Within the ___ ___, the final masses of the planets are similar to ______. Beyond this, the masses may reach up to ___ earth masses. this is because more material is available in the form of ____.

Answer 56

ice line, mars, 10, ice

Question 57

Large proto-planets can accrete gas ____, and if they reach about ___ earth masses, they exponentially grow until they clear a ____ (no more gas left), and so they stop, reaching ____ earth masses. Further out in the solar system, the ____ of gas is lower and it takes more time to build up to be. a massive object. However, once the ____ is turned on, the gas is blown away and accretion is halted.

Answer 57

directly, 20, gap, 10^2, density, star

Question 58

Jupiter and saturn peturb the planetesimals and embryos between __ and ___ AU forcing them to smaller radii and preventing them from ______. The planetesimalls between ___ and ___ AU collide and grow to reach up to an earth mass over about 100Myr.

Answer 58

2, 5, growing, 0.5, 2

Question 59

There are many ____ collisions which produce disks of ___ from which our moon is thought to have formed. This is why the ___ and ___ of the moon are similar to the upper layers of the earth.

Answer 59

glancing, ejecta, density, makeup

Question 60

many planetesimals within ____ AU ended up on ___, __ ___ orbits and collided with the inner planets for the next ____ Myr. Some material from the ____ ___ ___ also collided with inner planets

Answer 60

2, eccentric, high-inclination, 100, outer asteroid belt,

Question 61

Water protects the earth to some extent from ____ and _____ events. It also offset the ___ exposure when earth used to not have an ____ layer

Answer 61

meteor, impact, UV, ozone

Question 62

impact events may have occurred very _____ decreasing over time, or have had large events every once in a while. However, ____ ____ of these events is very little

Answer 62

gradually, geological record

Question 63

____ ____ are crystals left over from the initial rocks of the ____ period. They are highly ___ to change, and have weathered to become part of ___ rocks. They also contain _____. The oldest is ____ Ga and evidence of ___ ___ on earth. Zircons are made when ___ rock contains a mix of both Pb and U. The Zircon ____ forms, incorporating ___ and not ___. The U in the zircon converts to Pb at a predictable rate, and as such the ____ reveals the age of the zircon

Answer 63

zirconium silicates, hadean, resistant, sedimentary, uranium, 4.4, liquid water, molten, crystal, U, Pb, ratio

Question 64

A small fraction of the H in the universe is in the form of ____. Lots of it is in the form of ___ __ or heavy water. This form has a high ___ ___, ___ ___, and greater ____ than H2O. it also has a smaller __ ____. ____ isotopes are more abundant in higher salinity

Answer 64

deuterium, deuterium oxide, freezing point, boiling point, refractive index, heavier

Question 65

The oceans have ___ deuterium than the ____, but less than ____. The mantle has more deuterium than the ____ ___ ___. The abundance of deuterium can act as a ____ of a material, and tell us the ____ ____.

Answer 65

more, mantle, comets, primordial solar nebula, tracer, freezing temperature

Question 66

Most water probably came from ___ ___

Answer 66

carbonaceous chondrites

Question 67

Given the enrichment of oceans in deuterium, the source of water must have come from beyond ____. It may be comets, but they have ___ ____ deuterium, and by the time earth had finished the bulk of accretion, the comets had long been ____ by Jupiter and ____

Answer 67

mars, too much, expelled, saturn

Question 68

As the silica precipitated out of the oceans, it formed _____, that contain a fraction of ____ that depends on the temperature of the ocean at the time. So ___ ___ of the cherts along with O-18 _____ yields the temperature ____ of the oceans from nearly their origin until now

Answer 68

cherts, O-18, radioactive, abundance, evolution

Question 69

Oceans were likely _____ early on because it was in equilibrium with a dense atmosphere dominated by ____ and ____ reactions require a low ____. Later on, the dissolved CO2 decreased as ___ were buried and the pH increased toward the modern value

Answer 69

acidic, CO2, carbonation, pH, carbonates

Question 70

Life is thought to emerge in the presence of ___ ___ on the surface, or in a region which is alternatively wet and ____. Rain can bring new ____ and ___ ____ from the land into the ocean, if there is land

Answer 70

liquid water, dry, chemical, chemical energy

Question 71

abiogenesis

Answer 71

habitable world –> prebiotic synthesis –> polymers –> vesicles –> protocells –> last universal common ancestor –> diversity of life

Question 72

Although there is no clear evidence for the origin of life, ___ ___ are one example, as well as ____ which posits that life grew somewhere else and was transported to earth

Answer 72

hydrothermal vents, panspermia

Question 73

mats of microbes that were the first major photosynthesizer

Answer 73

stromatolites

Question 74

There are exposed ____ terrains in both the canadian shield and ____. There are also areas that are ____ by these rocks

Answer 74

archean, australia, underlain

Question 75

the continental crust floats ___ on the mantle than the oceanic crust. The lighter material that collide are forced together to make bigger ____ ____

Answer 75

higher, continental plates

Question 76

The continental crust is much ___ than the oceanic crust as it floats on top of it. The oceanic crust is _____ into the mantle at _____ ______ when the oceanic crust runs into the lighter continental crust, thus its average age is much ______. The continental crust can get ____, for example by a ____, but is rarely recycled.

Answer 76

thicker, recycled, subduction zones, younger, covered, volcano

Question 77

When portions of the continental crust run into each other, there are ____, otherwise, there are ___

Answer 77

mountains, rifts

Question 78

The oceanic crust. is produced at ___ ___ ____. It spends about ____ years at the surface before being re-assimilated into the mantle. The total volume generated far ____ the present volume of the crust, and as it drifts toward the subduction zones, the crust accumulates _____ washed off continents. Some sediment is recycled into ___ ____

Answer 78

mid ocean ridges, 10^5, exceeds, sediment, continental material

Question 79

Most people believe the continental crust was mostly formed by the end of the ___

Answer 79

Archean

Question 80

During bombardment, rocks from earth’s crust were thrown up and placed on the ___. The rocks found there were found to be made of similar things as the ___. ___ ____ were also found. This is evidence that earth had a ____

Answer 80

moon, earth, felsite, crust

Question 81

Heat flows through earth’s mantle through ____, and this drives __ ____. Early on, there was larger changes in ____ and the mantle was ____, and subsequently less ____. This meant that a smaller ___ was needed for convection to be effective, and thus, the plates were more ____ in the Archaean times. As the planet cooled, there was an increase in ___ ___ area, and continents grew

Answer 81

convection, plate tectonics, temperature, hotter, viscous, subdivided, plate cell

Question 82

In a subduction zone, the relatively cool oceanic crust is pressed into the hot ____, bringing cool material into it. In older times, the oceanic crust was younger, making it ____. This resulted in the crust melting at a _____ temperature and ____ depth. This means the lava created at this time was made of molten __ ___. However, today, the heat from the oceanic crust interacts with the ____, which causes the lava to be ___ ___. This results in different materials to be found in each

Answer 82

mantle, hotter, lower, shallower, oceanic crust, mantle, molten mantle

Question 83

Venus has a similar ___, ___ ___, and __ ___ to earth. However, its __ ___ is much longer, and its ___ ___ is much higher than earth’s

Answer 83

density, escape velocity, elevation change, rotation period, atmospheric pressure

Question 84

venus’ bond albedo is much higher than earth’s meaning its very ___ due to the reflective ___ of the atmosphere

Answer 84

reflective, clouds

Question 85

The high temperatures of venus is due to the large ____ rather than proximity to the sun.

Answer 85

atmosphere

Question 86

Venus rotates in the ___ direction to most of the planets in the solar system, it may have been hit by an object hard enough to turn it ____ ___.

Answer 86

opposite direction, upside down

Question 87

Venus has relatively few craters smaller than ___km in radius. Large craters can be used to ___ the surface. Little has happened since ___Ma when much of the surface was covered by fresh lava

Answer 87

10, age, 300-600

Question 88

Venus has volcanic activity similar to on earth with large volcanoes like ___ ____ and ____ when upwelling lava pushes up the __. It also has ___ __ where especially viscous lava spreads over the surfcae

Answer 88

Mauna Loa, Coronae, crust, pancake volcanoes

Question 89

Mars has a much ___ density than earth, but a similar __ ___. It atmospheric pressure is much ____ than earth’s.

Answer 89

lower, rotational period, lower

Question 90

Much of the CO2 and water in the martian atmosphere is ___ into ___ ___ which vary seasonally. the ___ polar cap is significantly ____ the the northern one. ____ ice is seen but immediately ___ after contact with the surface

Answer 90

frozen, ice caps, southern, bigger, underground, sublimates

Question 91

There is evidence. of flowing __ __ on the surface of mars at some point in its history. This indicates that at some point, mars must have had a ___ atmosphere, and different __ ____. It potentially lasted ___ years, meaning it could’ve been habitable on as short scale

Answer 91

liquid water, thicker, surface temperature, 1 million

Question 92

In the outer solar system, it is mostly ___, then ___, then ___

Answer 92

H, He, water

Question 93

Jupiter and saturn contain majority ___, and __ ___< while uranus and neptune are mainly made of ___, __ and ___

Answer 93

H2, metallic hydrogen, H2, ice, rock

Question 94

The great red spot in jupiter is a ____. The different colours in it can be see because you can see deeper into the ___.

Answer 94

hurricane, atmospherein

Question 95

in general, winds are blowing in the same direction as ___

Answer 95

rotation

Question 96

all of the gas planets except for ___ have ____ heat sources that dominate the energy ____ over the solar radiation

Answer 96

uranus, internal, budget

Question 97

The giant moons of jupiter are in ___ __ and are interacting with each other. They experience ____ ___ from jupiter

Answer 97

orbital resonance, tidal heating

Question 98

titan is unique among moons, with a thick ___ and lakes and falling rain made of ______ like ___ and ____, which can stay liquid at the frigid temperatures on titan

Answer 98

atmosphere, hydrocarbons, ethane, methane