All other relevant information Flashcards by Hanna Song

____ and ____ were created by the big bang. All other elements were made by ___

hydrogen, helium, stars

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the total amount of power hitting each square meter of the earth’s atmosphere

solar constant

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The solar constant includes all ____, not just infrared heat. It also includes the radiation that hits the top of the _____, in other words, the energy that doesn’t make it through.

radiation, atmosphere

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In 5BC, it was thought that the sun was a burning hunk of ___. In the late 19th century, it was hypothesized that the sun was a burning lump of ____.

metal, coal

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John waterson calculated that the sun would only stay for about ____ years if it was powered by a ____ process such as _____. Moreover, by this time, geologists had shown that the earth must be at least ____ of years old, thus the sun must be powered by some other source. Waterson argued that _____ falling into the sun kept it hot

20,000, chemical, combustion, millions, meteors

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Lord Kelvin proposed that the sun was powered by _____. However, the lifetime calculated by this gravitational energy was only ______ million years. Since geologists at this time argued that the earth was at least a ____ years old, this had to be wrong

gravity, 18, billion

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Eddington noticed that if you could rearrange the electrons and protons in 1 kg of ____ you would only get ____ g of helium. This meant that some of the energy was _____, and when this energy was calculated, the lifespan of the star was found to be _____ billion years

hydrogen, 993, lost, 70

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the equilibrium between the pressure inside the sun and the force of gravity

hydrostatic equilibrium

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From the middle outwards of the sun, there is the ____, then the _____ zone, then the ______ zone. On the surface are some ____ and ____. The core is ____% of the size of the solar interior and is through to have a temperature of ___ million K, the hottest part of the sun. In the radiative zone, light generated in the core travels very ____, because. of the high ___ of matter in this region that causes photons to change ___ and lose energy. In the convective zone, the _______ at the bottom bubbles to the surface where it loses its heat to space, then cools and ____.

core, radiative, convection, sunspots, granulation, 20, 15, slowly, density, direction, plasma, sinks

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Temperatures in the center of the sun usually only create enough energy from protons to get within ______ m of each other. Moreover, protons usually run to a wall of ___ and bounce off of it. Sometimes in ___ ___, sometimes they break through it, but even then almost always nothing happens

10^-12, repulsion, quantum mechanics

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Rarely, a two H atoms will stick and a ____ and ____ will be expelled, leaving _____. Then this will stick with another H atom, expel a ____ ___, and produce _____. This will combine with itself (made from a repeat of the previous reactions), to create two ____ and one ____

positron, neutrino, deuterium, gamma ray, H, Helium-3, H, He-4

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about ___% of the helium produced in the sun is generated with ___, ___ and ___ acting as a catalyst. In ____ stars, the core is hotter and the CNO cycle dominates

2, C, N, O, larger

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While everything regarding hydrogen fusion occurs deep inside the sun hidden from view, the ____ expelled pass through our bodies in quantities of ____ from the sun /second. This is because neutrinos react very ___ with ordinary matter, so they move direct to the sun’s ____, and escape the sun ____s after they are created

neutrinos, 10^11, little, surface, 2

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positrons expelled from fusion reactions will immediately be ___, when they collide with a nearby ___-

annihilated, electron

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The gamma rays that are produced from fusion reactions collide with _____ of matter and ___ energy to them. The particle emits another photon, but with ____ energy than the one absorbed, thus, this continues until it reaches the ____, and become many separate lower energy photons of ____.

particles, transfer, lower, surface, sunlight

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The first step of sticking two _____ together in nuclear fusion, takes the _____. Taking the mass ___ in the transformation, ____ J of energy is produced with just 1kg of H

H, longest, lost, 6.4x10^14J

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In 1960s, Raymond Davis built a ____ detector deep underground. It consisted of a ___ that held 100,000 gallons of _____ fluid. As a neutrino passes through it, it would react with a ___ atom to make a radioactive ____ atom. The experiment consistently found ___ of the expected neutrinos, and it was later discovered that they come in __ different flavours

neutrino, tank, dry-cleaning, Cl, Ar, 1/3, 3

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The closest star system to the sun is ____ ___, and it is a ____. the ___ member, ____, of the triple is very similar to the sun. Alpha centauri __ and ___ are a pair (binary). proxima centauri is a ____ ____ that orbits a and b, and is the nearest to the earth

alpha centauri, triple, brightest, a, a, b, companion star

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How fast a star is moving across the sky

proper motion

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In cooler stars, the temperatures are too low for certain elements like ___ and ___ to be excited, so we can’t see their spectral lines. in hot stars, metals are ____, so neutral metal spectral lines are not seen. ____ spectral lines are also not seen in hot stars because they are _______.

hydrogen, helium, ionized, molecule, destroyed

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When two stars circle around each other we can determine the ____ of star 1 by the time it takes to pass behind star 2, and we can determine the radius of star 2, by the ____ that star 1 is behind star 2 before it emerges again

radius, duration

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Stars along the main sequence that are ____ are also big and ____. Stars that are not as big are ___ and most ____

bright, rare, faint, common

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Binary star systems can be used to determine the ____ of the different stars. It can also be used to infer ____ ____ by looking at how spectral lines are ____ in energy as they orbit each other (____ shift)

mass, radial velocity, shifting, doppler

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For every 1 kg of H converted to He, you get ___ g of energy. However, for every kg of He converted to O, you only get ___g of energy, meaning nuclear fusion gets less and less ____. ___ is the peak, afterwards, no energy can be generated with fusion.

7, 1, efficient, iron

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By percent mass, most of the matter in the universe is ___ ____, or ___ ____.

dark matter, dark energy

Only ____% of the mass of the universe is in atoms, while only 5% of the mass in atoms is in _____. Only 25% of the stars are ___ like our sun, and only ___% of the mass of stars is in planets

4.6%, stars, young, 0.1

A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star

planet

There are planets that are ___ ___ between stars, but they inhabitable

free floating

Natural satellites (moons) are round but do not orbit the _____, and dwarf planets have not ____ ___ ____

sun, cleared their neighborhood

Many "planets" were discovered in _____s, before ___ were demotioned, and _____ was declared a dwarf planet

1850, asteroids, pluto

Planets discovered early on were planets ____ to the sun. This is because the change in ______ _____ of the sun by the planets were measured with ___ ___ (doppler shift). The planets closest to the star produce the greatest effect.

closest, radial velocity, stellar spectroscopy

measuring the orbit of a planet by measuring the slight dimming of a star when one of its planets crosses over the face of it

transits

Dwarf planets take much longer than the age of the _____ __ to clear their neighbourhoods.

solar system,

The distance between orbits today, are just about the size of ___ _____. This implies that perhaps there were more planets in the ____, but they were kicked out because there was no space

cleared regions, past

Planets with ____ ____ similar to earth are rare

orbital period

When the sunlight hits a planet, the ____ sunlight heats the surface, while some sunlight is _____ away by the surface and _____. The planet then emits ____ ____ in all directions. In equilibrium, the energy ___ is equal to the energy _____. Accounting for the ___, or the reflected sunlight, we can calculate the equilibrium temperature

absorbed, reflected, atmosphere, thermal radiation, absorbed, emitted, albedo

There are not that many planets with a ____ like earth's. Those with similar radii may also have higher ___ ___. Those with too small of a radius has too ___ of a gravity, while those with too ___ of a radius has too ____ of a gravity

radii, equilibrium temperature, small, big

Brown dwarfs have masses between ____ and ____x that of Jupiter. They are thought to have fused ____ and ____ .

13, 80, deuterium, lithium

Gas giants have gaseous ___ ____> They are 90% ___ and ____, and have ___ cores of about ___ earth masses. After the cores formed, they ____ gas quickly. because they rotate so fast, they are not ____. They also have many ____ and sometimes _____. These satellites may experience large ____ from the planets

surface layers, hydrogen, helium, rocky, 10, accreted, round, satellites, rings, tides

ice giants are only about ___% of H and He by mass. They grew by accreting material that was ____ during the the epoch of planet formation. These materials have freezing points above _____K, such as water ____ and _____. These planets have ____ outer layers similar to the gas giants. They are ____ ____, have high-speed ____ winds, ______ _____, and large scale _____. It is unclear how they form but are quite ____ in the galaxy

20, frozen, 100, ammonia, methane, gaseous, long lived, equatorial, polar vortices, circulation, common

Terrestrial planets each have an ____ core of varying size. The core is surrounded by a ____ mantle, They may have substantial ___ and ____.

iron, silicate, ocean, atmosphere

Uranus and neptune are much ____ than jupiter and saturn but each have a core of ____, ___ and ____. They were less _____ at attracting H and He gas, so they have much smaller ____ in proportion to their cores.

smaller, rock, metal, ice, efficient, atmospheres

Giant planets have a lot of ____ and thus has ____ chemistry, while terrestrial planets have a lot of ____ and thus ____ chemistry

H, reducing, O, oxidizing

Most moons are in the ____ solar system and have compositions similar to the ___ of giant planets around which they orbit Most of these moons ____ during formation and have cores of ___ and ___, with upper layers and crusts of cold, hard ____. the exception is our moon, which has a composition similar to ___ ____

outer, cores, differentiated, rock, metal, ice, terrestrial planets

A thick ___ atmosphere keeps surface temperatures at ____ K on Venus, while on mars, the temperatures are generally ____ freezing, and the air very ___ and dry

CO2, 700, below, thin

The outer layers of jovian planets are neither ___ or ___ enough for human habitation

warm, solid

Dust is mostly made of ___, ___ and ____ particles, and can be ___ or ____. When the density is high, it ___ the light from behind

C, O, Silicate, absorbed, scattered, block

A ___ dust cloud must be more ___ to collapse because the ____ of the gas will resist gravitational energy. A _____ cloud must also be more massive to collapse, due to the ___ ____ that resists collapse. It is easier for a cloud to collapse along ____ ___ so it pancakes

hotter, massive, pressure, rotating, angular momentum, field lines

Stars are often born within groups known as _____. All stars in this group have roughly the same ___, ____ and _____.

clusters, distance, age, composition

From typically the largest number of members to typically smallest, stellar groups are ____ ___, or stars forming in groups of millions at a time, ___ ___, and _____ ______.

globular clusters, open clusters, OB associations

objects more massive than our sun form into stars much ____, over tens of thousands of years. Some stars are too small to burn __ for fuel, and these are known as ___ ____. These are more ____ than planets, form in their own ____ rather than in the protoplanetary disk of another star, and have a period of ____ fusion

faster, H, brown dwarfs, bigger, clumps, deuterium

In protoplanetary disks, you can see multiple ___ and ___ that indicate the presence of emerging ____, which are sweeping their orbits clear of ___ and ____

rings, gaps, planets, dust, gas

Within 2-3 AU, the dust is made of ____ and ___, materials that can ___ out of gas. This makes up the ___ planet material. Outside of 2-3 AU, it is ___. and there is a lot of ____.

iron, silicates, freeze, inner, colder, ice

There are two components in the protoplanetary disk: ___ which feels ___ from the protostar and ___. This rotates around the star more ____. Then there is dust, which feels ____ from the protostar and ___ from the gas. The dust settles to the ____ in 10^3 years and clump together. However, it is ____ by the interaction with gas. Normally, these clumps would ___ into the star before the planetesimals could grow past ____m.

gas, gravity, pressure, slowly, gravity, drag, midplane, slowed, fall, 1,

Once the clumps grow to ____ km in radius,____ helps. Bigger planetesimals can accrete more material, so the larger bodies grow ____. The accretion stops when the mass of the large ____ dominates

1, gravity, exponentially, embryos

Within the ___ ___, the final masses of the planets are similar to ______. Beyond this, the masses may reach up to ___ earth masses. this is because more material is available in the form of ____.

ice line, mars, 10, ice

Large proto-planets can accrete gas ____, and if they reach about ___ earth masses, they exponentially grow until they clear a ____ (no more gas left), and so they stop, reaching ____ earth masses. Further out in the solar system, the ____ of gas is lower and it takes more time to build up to be. a massive object. However, once the ____ is turned on, the gas is blown away and accretion is halted.

directly, 20, gap, 10^2, density, star

Jupiter and saturn peturb the planetesimals and embryos between __ and ___ AU forcing them to smaller radii and preventing them from ______. The planetesimalls between ___ and ___ AU collide and grow to reach up to an earth mass over about 100Myr.

2, 5, growing, 0.5, 2

There are many ____ collisions which produce disks of ___ from which our moon is thought to have formed. This is why the ___ and ___ of the moon are similar to the upper layers of the earth.

glancing, ejecta, density, makeup

many planetesimals within ____ AU ended up on ___, __ ___ orbits and collided with the inner planets for the next ____ Myr. Some material from the ____ ___ ___ also collided with inner planets

2, eccentric, high-inclination, 100, outer asteroid belt,

Water protects the earth to some extent from ____ and _____ events. It also offset the ___ exposure when earth used to not have an ____ layer

meteor, impact, UV, ozone

impact events may have occurred very _____ decreasing over time, or have had large events every once in a while. However, ____ ____ of these events is very little

gradually, geological record

____ ____ are crystals left over from the initial rocks of the ____ period. They are highly ___ to change, and have weathered to become part of ___ rocks. They also contain _____. The oldest is ____ Ga and evidence of ___ ___ on earth. Zircons are made when ___ rock contains a mix of both Pb and U. The Zircon ____ forms, incorporating ___ and not ___. The U in the zircon converts to Pb at a predictable rate, and as such the ____ reveals the age of the zircon

zirconium silicates, hadean, resistant, sedimentary, uranium, 4.4, liquid water, molten, crystal, U, Pb, ratio

A small fraction of the H in the universe is in the form of ____. Lots of it is in the form of ___ __ or heavy water. This form has a high ___ ___, ___ ___, and greater ____ than H2O. it also has a smaller __ ____. ____ isotopes are more abundant in higher salinity

deuterium, deuterium oxide, freezing point, boiling point, refractive index, heavier

The oceans have ___ deuterium than the ____, but less than ____. The mantle has more deuterium than the ____ ___ ___. The abundance of deuterium can act as a ____ of a material, and tell us the ____ ____.

more, mantle, comets, primordial solar nebula, tracer, freezing temperature

Most water probably came from ___ ___

carbonaceous chondrites

Given the enrichment of oceans in deuterium, the source of water must have come from beyond ____. It may be comets, but they have ___ ____ deuterium, and by the time earth had finished the bulk of accretion, the comets had long been ____ by Jupiter and ____

mars, too much, expelled, saturn

As the silica precipitated out of the oceans, it formed _____, that contain a fraction of ____ that depends on the temperature of the ocean at the time. So ___ ___ of the cherts along with O-18 _____ yields the temperature ____ of the oceans from nearly their origin until now

cherts, O-18, radioactive, abundance, evolution

Oceans were likely _____ early on because it was in equilibrium with a dense atmosphere dominated by ____ and ____ reactions require a low ____. Later on, the dissolved CO2 decreased as ___ were buried and the pH increased toward the modern value

acidic, CO2, carbonation, pH, carbonates

Life is thought to emerge in the presence of ___ ___ on the surface, or in a region which is alternatively wet and ____. Rain can bring new ____ and ___ ____ from the land into the ocean, if there is land

liquid water, dry, chemical, chemical energy

abiogenesis

habitable world --> prebiotic synthesis --> polymers --> vesicles --> protocells --> last universal common ancestor --> diversity of life

Although there is no clear evidence for the origin of life, ___ ___ are one example, as well as ____ which posits that life grew somewhere else and was transported to earth

hydrothermal vents, panspermia

mats of microbes that were the first major photosynthesizer

stromatolites

There are exposed ____ terrains in both the canadian shield and ____. There are also areas that are ____ by these rocks

archean, australia, underlain

the continental crust floats ___ on the mantle than the oceanic crust. The lighter material that collide are forced together to make bigger ____ ____

higher, continental plates

The continental crust is much ___ than the oceanic crust as it floats on top of it. The oceanic crust is _____ into the mantle at _____ ______ when the oceanic crust runs into the lighter continental crust, thus its average age is much ______. The continental crust can get ____, for example by a ____, but is rarely recycled.

thicker, recycled, subduction zones, younger, covered, volcano

When portions of the continental crust run into each other, there are ____, otherwise, there are ___

mountains, rifts

The oceanic crust. is produced at ___ ___ ____. It spends about ____ years at the surface before being re-assimilated into the mantle. The total volume generated far ____ the present volume of the crust, and as it drifts toward the subduction zones, the crust accumulates _____ washed off continents. Some sediment is recycled into ___ ____

mid ocean ridges, 10^5, exceeds, sediment, continental material

Most people believe the continental crust was mostly formed by the end of the ___

Archean

During bombardment, rocks from earth's crust were thrown up and placed on the ___. The rocks found there were found to be made of similar things as the ___. ___ ____ were also found. This is evidence that earth had a ____

moon, earth, felsite, crust

Heat flows through earth's mantle through ____, and this drives __ ____. Early on, there was larger changes in ____ and the mantle was ____, and subsequently less ____. This meant that a smaller ___ was needed for convection to be effective, and thus, the plates were more ____ in the Archaean times. As the planet cooled, there was an increase in ___ ___ area, and continents grew

convection, plate tectonics, temperature, hotter, viscous, subdivided, plate cell

In a subduction zone, the relatively cool oceanic crust is pressed into the hot ____, bringing cool material into it. In older times, the oceanic crust was younger, making it ____. This resulted in the crust melting at a _____ temperature and ____ depth. This means the lava created at this time was made of molten __ ___. However, today, the heat from the oceanic crust interacts with the ____, which causes the lava to be ___ ___. This results in different materials to be found in each

mantle, hotter, lower, shallower, oceanic crust, mantle, molten mantle

Venus has a similar ___, ___ ___, and __ ___ to earth. However, its __ ___ is much longer, and its ___ ___ is much higher than earth's

density, escape velocity, elevation change, rotation period, atmospheric pressure

venus' bond albedo is much higher than earth's meaning its very ___ due to the reflective ___ of the atmosphere

reflective, clouds

The high temperatures of venus is due to the large ____ rather than proximity to the sun.

atmosphere

Venus rotates in the ___ direction to most of the planets in the solar system, it may have been hit by an object hard enough to turn it ____ ___.

opposite direction, upside down

Venus has relatively few craters smaller than ___km in radius. Large craters can be used to ___ the surface. Little has happened since ___Ma when much of the surface was covered by fresh lava

10, age, 300-600

Venus has volcanic activity similar to on earth with large volcanoes like ___ ____ and ____ when upwelling lava pushes up the __. It also has ___ __ where especially viscous lava spreads over the surfcae

Mauna Loa, Coronae, crust, pancake volcanoes

Mars has a much ___ density than earth, but a similar __ ___. It atmospheric pressure is much ____ than earth's.

lower, rotational period, lower

Much of the CO2 and water in the martian atmosphere is ___ into ___ ___ which vary seasonally. the ___ polar cap is significantly ____ the the northern one. ____ ice is seen but immediately ___ after contact with the surface

frozen, ice caps, southern, bigger, underground, sublimates

There is evidence. of flowing __ __ on the surface of mars at some point in its history. This indicates that at some point, mars must have had a ___ atmosphere, and different __ ____. It potentially lasted ___ years, meaning it could've been habitable on as short scale

liquid water, thicker, surface temperature, 1 million

In the outer solar system, it is mostly ___, then ___, then ___

H, He, water

Jupiter and saturn contain majority ___, and __ ___< while uranus and neptune are mainly made of ___, __ and ___

H2, metallic hydrogen, H2, ice, rock

The great red spot in jupiter is a ____. The different colours in it can be see because you can see deeper into the ___.

hurricane, atmospherein

in general, winds are blowing in the same direction as ___

rotation

all of the gas planets except for ___ have ____ heat sources that dominate the energy ____ over the solar radiation

uranus, internal, budget

The giant moons of jupiter are in ___ __ and are interacting with each other. They experience ____ ___ from jupiter

orbital resonance, tidal heating

titan is unique among moons, with a thick ___ and lakes and falling rain made of ______ like ___ and ____, which can stay liquid at the frigid temperatures on titan

atmosphere, hydrocarbons, ethane, methane