ALL CARDS Flashcards
<p>Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage</p>
<p>-First of four stages
- First two years of life
- Experiencing the environment
- develop !!object permanence!!
- end of stage, develops early language utilization</p>
<p>Piaget's Pre-operational Stage</p>
<p>-toddler-7 years
- children begin to think of things symbolically
- language use becomes more mature
- develop memory and imagination
- can tell the difference between past and future
- cannot grasp more complex concepts i.e. cause&amp;effect, time, and comparison</p>
<p>Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage</p>
<p>-7-11 years of age
- logical concrete reasoning
- thinking becomes less egocentric and awareness of surrounding increases
- NO abstract/hypothetical thought</p>
<p>Piaget's Formal Operational Stage</p>
<p>- >11 years
- able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, i.e. algebra and science
- Final stage of cognitive development according to Piaget</p>
<p>Difference between:
Conformity
Obedience
Compliance</p>
<p>-Conformity: changing one's behavior in order to fit in with the norms of a particular social group, most typically a group that has a certain level of social importance
- Obedience: changing one's behavior in response to a direct command or order of a person who is in authority or is of higher social status
- Compliance- changing one's behavior in response to a request from another person who is of equal or lower status (thus differing from obedience)</p>
<p>Cultural Relativism</p>
<p>the principle of viewing aspects of a different culture from the viewpoint of that culture rather than from one's own viewpoint (the opposite of ethnocentrism)</p>
<p>Prejudice</p>
<p>a negative and often unjustified attitude or stereotypical belief about an individual or a group, and it is NOT specific to race or culture</p>
<p>Discrimination</p>
<p>the actual behavior, typically negative, towards an individual or group</p>
<p>Ethnocentrism</p>
<p>the tendency to believe that one's own ethnic or cultural group is the most important one, and that all other groups are measured against one's own</p>
<p>Ultimate attribution error</p>
<p>occurs when negative behavior by a member of an out-group is attributed by an in-group member to the out-group member's characteristics (e.g., genetics, intelligence, personality, childhood background), while positive behavior by a member of an out-group is rationalized or explained away (e.g., good luck, special circumstances, etc.)</p>
<p>Economic Capital</p>
<p>command of economic resources (money, assets, property)</p>
<p>Social Capital</p>
<p>actual and potential resources linked to the possession of a durable network of institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition</p>
<p>Cultural Capital</p>
<p>A person's education (knowledge and intellectual skills) that provides advantage in achieving a higher social-status in society</p>
<p>Political Capital</p>
<p>refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence a politician has with the public and other political figures</p>
<p>Manifest Functions</p>
<p>the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern</p>
<p>Latent Functions</p>
<p>those unrecognized and unintended consequences</p>
<p>Explicit memory</p>
<p>a type of memory in which one can "declare" and clearly articulate what one knows</p>
<p>self-reference effect</p>
<p>describes how it is easier to remember that which is personally relevant or which can be linked to other memories</p>
<p>Social Learning</p>
<p>not about memory, but rather about learning through observing another and imitating his or her actions</p>
<p>Depth of processing</p>
<p>concerns how deeply one thinks about the issues to be committed to memory (meaning is more easily remembered than form because one often ruminates more about the former</p>
<p>Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness</p>
<p>Illness is determined by a variety of influences, rather than a single cause. The causes and effects of illness can be examined at multiple levels in the life of an individual, and no single level provides the whole picture. Collecting info about psychosocial context is key to the understanding of physical health and illness.</p>
<p>Biomedical approach to health and illness
| </p>
<p>Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.
</p>
<p>Models</p>
<p>Provide an approximation (physical/conceptual representation) of a scientific phenomenon that cannot be observed directly</p>
<p>Theories</p>
<p>Provides the conceptual framework for understanding objects of study</p>
Social constructionism |
Human actors actively construct their "reality", rather than discovering a reality that has inherent validity, through their social interactions. The beliefs and shared understandings of individuals create social realities. In the context of illness, there is a gap b/t the biological reality of a medical condition and the societally created meaning of the condition. (ex. changing conceptualizations of mental illness results in changes to the DSM). It is a dynamic, ongoing process
Brute facts vs Institutional Facts
-Part of WEAK social constructionism - Brute facts are physical realities that exist outside of human input - Institutional facts only exist as a function of society's structures and beliefs
Symbolic interactionism |
Micro social perspective. Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning in society, rather than society acting upon the individual. Meaning can change with a single interaction, so addresses subjective meanings. Humans ascribe meaning to things, act based on those meanings, use language to generate meaning through social interaction, and modify meanings through thought processes. However, ignores larger societal forces that shape people's lives.
Symbols |
Terms, concepts, or items that represent specific meanings by accepted convention. Meanings ascribed to symbols are determined by social norms and cultural values.
Functionalism
Founder: Emile Durkheim Macrosocial perspective -Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Society is a system that consists of different components working together, with distinct institutions that contribute to functioning. Seeks to understand what different structures in society contribute to society at large. When disruptions occur, the interacting systems respond to get back to a stable state. Explains societal stability but NOT societal change (assumes stability is the ideal)
Conflict Theory
Founder: Karl Marx Macrosocial perspective Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium. Society is a competition for limited resources. Explains societal changes but NOT societal societal stability (assumes stability is undesirable to societal groups that are oppressed) Views human actions in terms of larger forces of inequality, but leaves motivations choices of individuals unexamined. Ignores the non-forceful ways in which people reach agreement, and approaches society more from those who lack power. Tends to be too economically focused.
Culture
All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a shared way of life. Has a pervasive effect on worldview.
Culture shock |
The discomfort and ensuring reevaluation of personal cultural assumptions when an individual experiences a culture different from her own
Material culture |
Objects involved in a certain way of life
Nonmaterial culture |
Encompasses the elements of cultures that are not physical. Includes shared ideas, knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.
Social norms |
Expectations that govern what behavior is acceptable within a group. Social interactions help define a culture by establishing these
Social group |
A subset of a population that maintains social interactions. Alternatively, includes a collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals
Symbolic culture |
Non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that only have meaning in the mind. Based on a shared system of collective beliefs in the form of symbols. Includes the meanings ascribed to rituals, gestures, and objects.
Language
The use of symbols to represent ideas
Society
Two or more individuals living together in a definable area and/or sharing elements of a culture. A society can encompass multiple cultures.
Social institutions |
Stable hierarchical systems that bring order to interpersonal interactions, structuring society. Examples are government/economy, education, religion, family, and health/medicine. Provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society, and mediate social behavior between people.
Government/economy as a social institution |
Provides order to a society through the services it provides and the making and enforcement of law
Education as a social institution |
Provides a formal structure during childhood and the transition to adulthood, and an opportunity to instruct youth on social norms, expectations for behavior, knowledge, and skills needed to operate within society. Its manifest function is to systematically pass down knowledge and give status to those who have been educated. Its latent function is socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control. Serves to reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities. Experience educational segregation because of differential funding of schools based on residential segregation.
Religion as a social institution |
Acts as an organized structure of behaviors and social interactions that addresses the spiritual needs of society. From a functionalist standpoint, can create social cohesion/dissent, social change/control, and provide believers with meaning and purpose.
Religion
A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence
Family as a social institution |
Creates a social group in which to procreate, rear children, pass on cultural knowledge, and cooperate to better meet life's challenge
The nuclear family |
The concept of family in which one man and one woman live together with their children; most common concept of family in the US. Consists of DIRECT blood relations.
Polygamy
An individual married to more than one individual
Polyandry
More than one man married to one woman
Health/medicine as a social institution |
Fulfills the need for healthcare in an organized manner, with beliefs about diseases and approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures
Demographics
Statistics used to examine the nature of a specific population by quantifying subsets of that population. They are a statistical snapshot in time, and do not capture the ever-changing nature of society.
Quantified demographic parameters include: |
Age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status, education level
Demographic transition |
A demographic change that takes place over time
Fertility |
The production of offspring within a population
Cohort study |
Following a subset of a population over a lifetime
Period study |
Examining the number of offspring produced during a specific time period
Mortality |
The death rate within a population.
Migration
The relocation of people from one place to another; influences population size
Immigration
The influx of new people to a specific area; increases population size
Emigration
The outflow of people to other areas; reduces population size
Social movement |
Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals
Urbanization |
Increase in the proportion of people living in specified urban areas, due to industrialization
Globalization |
Increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through exchange of products, services, ideas and information
Social inequality |
The unequal distribution of opportunities or treatment of individuals within a society based on various demographic categories
Spatial inequality |
Unequal access to resources and variable quantity of life within a population or geographical distribution. Can be affected by income, unemployment, and unequal access to resources. Influences health by affecting access to healthcare
Environmental justice |
The equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social grouping with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards
Residential segregation |
Instance of social inequality on the local scale, where demographic groups are separated into different locations with unequal access to resources
Food deserts |
Areas where it is difficult to find affordable, healthy food options. More common in highly populated low-income urban neighborhoods where there are fewer grocery stores/transportation options to seek out other food choices. Contribute to obesity in these areas bc people resort to buying cheap, highly caloric foods
Social class |
System of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social standing. Multifaceted, and tied to status within a community and power
Power |
Influence over a community
People in higher social class tend to have more:
```Power, Privilege, and Prestige
Socioeconomic status (SES) |
Defines the economic and social position of a person in terms of income, wealth, education, and occupation
Income vs wealth |
Income is assets EARNED while wealth is assets already OWNED.
Prestige
the relative value assigned to something within a particular society
White-collar work |
Jobs that are professional, administrative, or managerial in nature; defines the middle class
Blue-collar work |
Occupations that require skilled or unskilled manual labor
Caste system |
Hierarchy of society is strictly defined, position is inherited, and movement or marriage between castes is prohibited
Upward mobility |
The movement of an individual up the class hierarchy. Achieved through education, marriage, career, or financial success
Downward mobility |
The movement of an individual down the class hierarchy. Due to unemployment, underemployment, reduced household income, lack of education, or health issues
Intragenerational mobility |
Movement of a young person from a lower social class to a higher social class through merit (achieving the "American dream")
Intergenerational mobility |
Movement through the class system between generations (old generation is poor/rich, sets up environment for new generation to become rich/poor)
Meritocracy |
Society in which advancement is based solely on the abilities and achievements of the individual
Cultural capital |
The set of non-monetary social factors that contribute to social mobility. Examples include dress, accent, vernacular, manners, education, cultural knowledge, intellectual pursits
Social capital |
An individual's social networks and connects that may confer economic or personal benefits
Social reproduction |
Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next
Poverty
an insufficiency of material goods, monetary wealth, and access to resources
Isolation
Also known as social exclusion. Describes how impoverished people are often excluded from opportunities available to others.
Absolute poverty |
Lack of essential resources (food, shelter, clothing, hygiene). More extreme form of poverty
Relative poverty |
Social inequality in which people are relatively poor compared to other members of society in which they live
Health disparity |
Aka health inequity. Differences in health and healthcare that occur between groups of people
Sociology
The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live. Attempts to understand the behavior of GROUPS.
Emile Durkheim |
-Father of sociology, pioneer of modern social research and established the field as separate and distinct from psychology and politics - Major proponent of functionalism - Argued that modern society was more complex than primitive societies because they were all similar, shared a common language. Even when people were dissimilar, they relied on each other to make society function.
Dynamic equilibrium |
Aspect of functionalism. Complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability. Unhealthy cites are unable to maintain this.
Social facts |
The elements that serve some function in society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society.
Social dysfunction |
Social process that has undesirable consequences, reducing the stability of society
Karl Marx |
Father of sociology. Associated with Conflict Theory. Looked at the economic conflict between different social classes, and argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production. Believed that capitalism would ultimately lead to self-destruction of society due to internal tensions.
Ludwig Gumplowicz |
Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups.
Max Weber |
Father of sociology. Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.
Dramaturgical approach |
Assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage, where people choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbal and nonverbally to others. Critics say this research may not be objective, ad that theory is focused too narrowly on symbolic interaction.
Social construct |
A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.
Family |
A set of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serves five functions: - Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior - Protection - Socialization - Affection and companionship - Social status
Socialization
The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. It is the way that children learn the culture into which they have been born
Polygyny
A man married to more than one woman
Endogamy
The practice of marrying within a particular group
Exogamy
A requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives A requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
Assisted marriage |
Parents provide children with possible mates, out of which the child can choose
Kinship/kin |
How we think about who we are related to. Considered a cultural group rather than biological
Bilateral descent |
Kin groups that involve both maternal and paternal relations
Patrilineal descent |
Preference for paternal relations in the kin group
Matrilineal descent |
Preference for maternal relations in the kin group
Egalitarian family |
Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in negotiation when making decisions
Social class in America is largely determined by ________.
```Financial wealth
Upper vs lower class families
```Upper class families have concerns related to continuing a larger family tradition and properly training children, while lower class families are focused on completing the everyday tasks necessary for survival. Upper class parents are more permissive/authoritative, while lower class parents are more authoritarian.
Divorce rate in America |
Has generally increased due to social and religious acceptance, more opportunities for women's autonomy, and lessened financial and legal barriers
Ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions
Church
A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the large society. Membership teds to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. Can be tied to the state or independent of it.
Sect
A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions. Membership may be by birth or through conversion.
Cult/New religious movement |
A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Many major world religions originated as cults.
Religiosity
The extent of influence of religion in a person's life
Fundamentalists
Individuals who adhere strictly to religious beliefs
Rational-legal authority |
Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document. How the United States government operates
Traditional authority |
Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Charismatic authority |
Power due to persuasion (eg. MLK)
Capitalism
An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit. Driving force in society is the pursuit of personal profit. Emphasizes personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations
Socialism |
An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. System of production and distributed designed to satisfy human needs, with goods/services produced for direct use instead of profit.
Welfare capitalism |
System where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.
State capitalism |
System in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
Professions
Highly-esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis |
People understand the world through language and language shapes how we experience the world
Cultural universals |
Patterns/traits that are common to all people. Tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs (eg. securing food and shelter)
Values
a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad
Beliefs
Convictions or principles that people hold in a culture
Sociobiology
The study of how biology and evolution have affected human behavior. Applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors. Additionally, argues that biological predisposition is influenced by social factors, and that the origins of culture lie in human evolution.
People under 20 make up approximately ________ of the US population.
25%
Race
The biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual
Ethnicity
Socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry
Fecundity
xThe potential reproductive capacity of a female
Crude birth rate |
Annual number of live births per 1000 people
General fertility rate |
The annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age
Replacement level fertility |
The number of children that a woman/couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die
Life expectancy |
The number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates
Social stratification |
The way that people are categorized in society
Class system |
Considers both social variables and individual initiative in social stratification
Socioeconomic status (SES) can be defined in terms of: |
power, property, and prestige
Global inequality |
Certain countries hold a majority of the resources. Access to resources among countries seriously impacts social factors such as mortality. The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population.
Gender bias |
Women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness. In healthcare, often due to research being conducted only on male subjects
Macrosociology |
Large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities and statistical data. Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy
Microsociology
Face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of society, looking at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society
Secularization
Weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines
Fundamentalism
Reaction to secularization, by going back to strict religious beliefs. Creates social problems when people become too extreme.
Monarchy
Government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead
Communism
Classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community
Medicalization
Human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions, and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment.
Sick role |
Expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities . However, if you don't get better or return you are viewed as deviant
Illness experience |
Process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Can change a person's self identity
Class consciousness |
The beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.
The self as a social construct |
Our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people
STRONG social constructionism |
The whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits. All knowledge is social construct and no brute facts. There are no facts that just exist.
George Herbert Mead |
Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things
Feminist Theory |
Contemporary approach of looking at work from macro perspective, focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society, particularly women's social roles in education, family, and workforce. Women face DISCRIMINATION, OBJECTIFICATION, OPPRESSION, AND STEREOTYPING. NOT an attempt to replace men.
Gender differences |
Expectations for gender are passed down from generation to generation.
Gender inequality |
Central to all behavior. Women subordination is viewed as an inherent feature in our patriarchal society.
Gender oppression |
Women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed and abused.
Structural oppression of women |
Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy and racism. Women are exploited because of capitalism model, but not all women express oppression in the same way. Men are associated with the mind, while women are associated with the body.
Rational choices Theory |
Every action people do is fundamentally rational. A person acts as if they are weighing costs and benefits of each action. People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals.
3 Main Assumptions of Rational Choice Theory |
-Completeness (every action can be ranked) - Transitivity (Since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C) - Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a 4th option, it won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options)
Exchange Theory |
Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action.
Sexual selection |
Natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex
Social selection |
Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population
Life Course theory |
Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die.
Age stratified theory |
Age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
Activity theory |
Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Lost social interactions (work, certain activities) need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged
Disengagement Theory |
Older adults and society separate, assume that they become more self-absorbed as they age. Considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well
Continuity Theory |
People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age, they make decision to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
Pluralism |
Encourages racial/ethnic variation
5 Considerations of Gender |
-Biological--> XX vs XY - Identity --> What gender they identify - Expression--> What gender they express - Attraction--> Not dependent on gender of a person (is not limited to sexual attraction, can be romantic) - Fornication --> sexual attraction
Gender schema |
Cognitions that constitute the gender identity
Gender script |
Gender-specific organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situations
Urban renewal |
Revamping old parts of cities to become better. Can lead to gentrification.
Rural rebound |
People getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas
World Systems Theory |
Importance of world as a unit, dividing world into CORE (Western Europe/US), PERIPHERY (Latin America, Africa), and SEMI-PERIPHERY (India, Brazil)
Dependency theory |
Periphery countries export resources to core countries, and don't have means to develop
Hyperglobalist perspective |
Sees it as a new age in human history: countries become interdependent and nation-states themselves are less important
Skeptical perspective |
Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits
Transformationalist perspective |
National governments are changing, with world order (new world order) forming
Mass society theory |
Groups only form for people seeking refuge from main society (ex. Nazism)
Relative Deprivation Theory |
Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. ex. Civil Rights Movements
Resource Mobilization Theory |
Focus on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources
Culture lag |
Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems
Diffusion
Spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another
Mass Media as viewed by functionalism and conflict theory |
Functionalist: provides entertainment | Conflict: portrays divisions that exist in society
Gatekeeping |
The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media
Behaviorism
The study of external observable behaviors (as opposed to internal motivaitons/thoughts)
Associative learning |
AKA conditioning. Refers to learning that involves associations between certain stimuli and specific responses
Classical conditioning |
An individual develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus by associating the stimulus with another the already elicits the response. Think: STIMULI ---> BEHAVIOR. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.
Unconditioned stimulus |
A stimulus that results in an innate behavioral response (a response that is not learned)
Unconditioned response |
A behavioral response that is innate (not learned)
Neutral stimulus |
A stimulus that does not elicit a behavioral response. Can eventually become conditioned response if presented immediately before unconditioned stimuli.
Conditioned stimulus |
A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a learned response
Conditioned response |
A response that is learned (elicited through a conditioned stimulus). Is similar to the original unconditioned response that is used to create a conditioned stimulus
Acquisition
The stage of learning over which a conditioned response to a new stimulus is established
Spontaneous recovery |
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of lessened response
Classical extinction |
Disappearance of a conditioned response through disassociation of the conditioned and unconditioned response
Stimulus generalization |
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Stimulus discrimination |
The learned lack of response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning |
An individual becomes more or less likely to carry out a certain behavior based on its consequences. Think: BEHAVIOR ---> RESPONSE. Discovered by B.F Skinner.
Skinner box |
Operant conditioning chamber for animals, where food is dispensed to animals only after carrying out a specific behavior. Sometimes included areas of electrical shock, used for animals to learn to avoid.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Punishment
In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Positive reinforcement |
Introduction of a reinforcing stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA adds a stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior
Negative reinforcement |
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA takes away stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior
Positive punishment |
Introduction of a punishing stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA adds stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior
Negative punishment |
Removal of a desired stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA removes stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior
Primary reinforcer |
A reinforcing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (ex. food, water, shelter). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.
Secondary reinforcer |
AKA conditioned reinforcers. Require learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but are just as effective at controlling behavior as primary reinforcers. Include money, praise, prestige, and good grades.
Primary punisher |
A punishing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (eg. exposure to extreme temperature). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.
Secondary punisher |
A punishing stimulus that requires learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but is just as effective at controlling behavior as primary punishers. Includes fines, scolding, ostracism, and bad grades.
Escape conditioning |
Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli.
Avoidance conditioning |
Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help avoid the unpleasant stimuli before it occurs.
Operant extinction |
Disappearance of a behavior through removal of reinforcers (ex. if a dog learns to sit down in order to receive a treat, and treats are no longer given, the "sit down" behavior will eventually disappear)
Reinforcement schedule |
Describes how often and under what conditions a behavior is reinforced
Partial reinforcement |
AKA intermittent reinforcement. Reinforcement of a behavior by delivering a response only part of the time. Four types: Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, and Variable-interval
Fixed-ratio reinforcement |
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specified # of responses
Variable-ratio reinforcement |
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-interval reinforcement |
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response
Variable-interval reinforcement |
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable time interval has passed since the response
What is the most rapid way to establish a learned response?
Continuous reinforcement
What is the most sustainable way to establish a learned response?
Partial reinforcement
Shaping |
A type of operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced in order to gradually achieve the desired behavior
Innate behaviors |
Behaviors that are developmentally fixed (cannot be modified through experience)
What is required for associative learning of non-instinctual behaviors?
Appropriate cognitive processes (higher level brain function)
ΩModelinG
Witnessing another person's actions, retaining info on that person's behavior, and later re-enacting what was learned
Observational learning |
Learning through observation (and imitation) of others' behaviors. Very important in childhood.
What is necessary for an individual to be capable of observational learning?
Biological processes (mirror neurons)
Mirror neurons |
Specialized nerve cells which fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action. Critical for observational learning (learning by imitation), and responsible for vicarious emotions
Vicarious emotions |
Feeling the emotions of others as though they are one's own, in order to learn from the successes and mistakes of others through observation
Behavior |
the sum coordinated responses of organisms to the internal and external stimuli that they experience
Nonverbal communication |
All communication between individuals that does not involve words (eg. body language, touch, appearance, facia l expressions)
Animal signals |
Nonverbal methods to communication such as vocalizations, visual stimuli, touch, and smell
Social behavior |
All interactions taking place between members of the same species
Attraction
Factors that draw members of a species together. A social behavior
Aggression
Conflict and competition between individuals. A social behavior
Attachment |
Forming relationships between individuals. A social behavior
Social support |
Finding help through social connections. A social behavior
Foraging behavior |
Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food. A social behavior. Animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it.
Mating behavior |
Behavior surrounding propagation of a species through reproduction. Natural selection plays a role in this.
Mate choice |
Determined by a number of factors, including genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates
Altruism |
Behavior that is disadvantageous to the individual, but confers benefits to other members of its social group. Appears to have no evolutionary benefit, but in actually improves inclusive fitnesses
Inclusive fitness |
Overall fitness, considering both individual's own progeny as well as the offspring of its close relatives. Can increase it with altruism
Game Theory |
Use of mathematical models to represent complex decision making in which the actions of other group members must be taken into account. Success of an individual in the "multiplayer game" depends not only on his or her own strategy but also on the strategies and decisions of the other "players". The most successful strategies result in greater fitness and will be favored by natural selection
Self-presentation |
How an individual is perceived
Impression management |
The process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others
Front stage self |
Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs in front of an audience. The player know they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience
Back stage self |
Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs when with other players, but no audience is present. Can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience.
Groupthink
The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. May cause individuals to self-censor ideas and opinions that go against group norms, or may be pressured by other group members to keep silent on these opinions.
Group polarization |
Through the interactions and discussions of a group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members
Peer pressure |
The social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors
Is conformity necessary for a society to function smoothly?
Yes
Social facilitation |
The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. Usually most pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled
Diffusion of responsibility |
Responsible for bystander effect. People in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action
Bystander effect |
Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present
Social loafing |
Members a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder
De-individuation |
Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd
Agents of socialization |
Consist of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Include family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, consumption of mass media, and environments
Conformity |
The tendency of individuals to CHANGE their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. Necessary for the smooth functioning of social communities
Obedience |
Describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure
Deviance
Behavior that violates social expectations or fails to conform to social norms
Stigma
A negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal/tainted
Cultural assimilation |
The process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture. Can occur through a variety of means (language acquisition, gaining knowledge of social norms)
Subculture |
A culture that is shared by a smaller group of people who are also part of a larger culture but have specific cultural attributes that set them apart from the larger group
Multiculturalism |
The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture. Believes that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal, rather than encouraging all cultures to blend together through assimilation
Ethnocentrism |
The belief that one's group is of central importance. Includes the tendency to judge the practices by other groups by one's own cultural standards
Cultural relativism |
The practice of trying to understand a culture on its own terms, and to judge a culture by its own standards rather than by one's own standards
In-group |
A group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty
Out-group |
A group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility
Prejudice |
The thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. Power, prestige, and class can contribute to the effect that it has on the lives and opportunities of individuals as well as the structure of social institutions. Think: PREJUDGment about a group.
Stereotype |
Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing
Stereotype threat |
The anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with negative stereotype about a group to which he belongs or when he feels his performance may confirm a negative stereotype about his group. Can cause stereotypes to become self-fulfilling prophecies
Self-fulfilling prophecies |
The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of others base don their membership in a specific social group. Its effects are mediated by factors such as power, prestige, and class. THINK: it is an ACTION
Individual discrimination |
Occurs when one person behaves negatively toward another because of that person's membership in a specific social group or category
Institutional discrimination |
Social institutions employ policies that differentiate people based on social grouping
Non associative learning |
Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
Habit |
An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
Habituation |
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Dishabituation |
Results when a repeated stimulus is removed
Sensitization |
An increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus
