Aeronautical Decision Making and Crew Resource Management

Question 1

Define aeronautical decision making.

Answer 1

ADM is the systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

Question 2

What are the four risk elements?

Answer 2

P – Pilot. Are you fit to fly? Consider:
- IMSAFE checklist (Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion)
- Currency and proficiency
- Experience in current conditions

A – Aircraft. Is the aircraft airworthy and suitable for the flight? Consider:
- ARROW & Performance limitations (weight, balance, fuel, power)
- Equipment (IFR-certified? Anti-ice?)
- Maintenance status

V – enVironment. Are the external conditions safe? Consider:
- Weather (winds, visibility, storms, icing)
- Airport conditions (runways, NOTAMs, terrain)
- Airspace and ATC services available

E – External Pressures. Are there pressures that could compromise safety? Consider:
- Get-there-itis (rushing to a destination)
- Passenger expectations
- Time constraints and personal stress

Question 3

The DECIDE model for decision making involves which elements?

Answer 3

• D etect a change needing attention
• E stimate the need to counter or react the change.
• C hoose the most desirable outcome for the flight.
• I dentify actions to successfully control the change.
• D o something to adapt to the change
• E valuate the effect of the action countering the change.

Question 4

What are the major factors affecting judgment and decision making?

Answer 4

• Stress
• Health
• Attitude
• Experience

Question 5

Name the five hazardous attitudes that negatively impact a pilot’s judgment and ability to make competent decisions and their antidotes.

Answer 5

Invulnerability - It could happen to me
Macho - Taking chances is foolish
Anti-authority - Follow the rules, they are usually right
Impulsivity - Think first, not so fast
Resignation - I can make a difference, I am not helpless

IMAIR

Question 6

What does crew resource managment (CRM) refer to?

Answer 6

The application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment.

Question 7

Which groups routinely working with the cockpit crew may also be viewed as effective components of CRM and the decision making process in the cockpit?

Answer 7

• Pilots
• Dispatchers
• Cabin Crew
• Maintenance Personnel
• Air Traffic Controllers

Question 8

Discuss the importance of understanding the concept of positive exchange of flight controls, as it relates to flight training.

Answer 8

There must always be a clear understanding of who has control of the aircraft. Prior to the flight, there should be a briefing on the procedure for exchanging the flight controls. A positive three step process is recommended:

1. Pilot 1 - “I have the airplane”
2. Pilot 2 - “You have the airplane”
3. Pilot 1 - “I have the airplane”

Question 9

What is situational awareness?

Answer 9

The accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements affecting safety before, during and after the flight.

Question 10

What are some of the elements, both inside and outside the aircraft, that a pilot must consider in order to maintain situational awareness?

Answer 10

• Inside aircraft
  
  • Status of systems
  • pilots
  • passengers
• Outside aircraft
  
  • environmental conditions
  • spatial orientation of the aircraft
  • relationship to the surrounding terrain
  • traffic
  • weather
  • airspace

Question 11

What are some of the obstacles to maintaining situational awareness? (3)

Answer 11

• Fatigue and Stress
• Work overload
• Distractions

Question 12

What are “operational pitfalls”?

Answer 12

Classic behavioral traps into which pilots have been known to fall. Pilots as a rule always try to complete a flight as planned, please passengers, meet schedules, and generally deomonstrate that they have the “right stuff”. The basic drive to demonstrate the right stuff can have an adverse effect on safety, and can impose an unrealistic assessment of piloting skills under stressful conditions.

Question 13

What are some examples of operational pitfalls that pilots have been known to experience?

Answer 13

• Peer pressure
• Mindset
• Get-there-itis
• Duck-under syndrome (Descent below minimums)
• Scud running
• Continuing VFR into IMC
• Getting behind the aircraft
• Loss of positional or situational awareness
• Operating without adequate fuel reserves
• Descent below the minimum enroute altitude
• Flying outside the envelope
• Neglect of flight planning, preflight inspections, and checklists.

Question 14

Why are pilots encouraged to use checklists?

Answer 14

They provide a logical and standardized method to operate a particular make and model airplane. Following the checklist reinforces the use of proper procedures throughout all major phases of flight.

Question 15

What are the two primary methods for using checklists?

Answer 15

• Read and Do:
  
  • This is when a pilot picks up a checklist, refers to an item, and sets the condition. The items for any particular phase of flight would all be accomplished before the checklist is set aside.
• Do and Verify:
  
  • Set the condition of the items for a particular phase of operation from memory or flow pattern, then use the checklist and read to verify that the appropriate condition for each item in that phase has been set. It is not wise for a pilot to become so reliant upon a flow pattern that they fail to verify with a checklist.

Question 16

What are some examples of checklists a pilot will use in the course of a flight?

Answer 16

1. Preflight inspection
2. Before engine start
3. Engine start
4. Before taxi
5. Before takeoff
6. Climb
7. Cruise
8. Descent
9. Before landing
10. After landing
11. Shutdown
12. Postflight

Question 17

Define Single-Pilot Resource Management

Answer 17

The ability of a pilot to effectively manage all available resources—both internal (aircraft systems, onboard equipment) and external (ATC, weather services, passengers, company dispatch, etc.) — to ensure a safe and efficient flight.

Question 18

5-P Method to practice SRM

Answer 18

1. Plan
   - Refers to preflight planning and flight execution.
   - Includes weather, route, fuel, ATC delays, and airport conditions.
2. Plane
   - Evaluates the aircraft’s airworthiness and capabilities.
   - Checks fuel, performance, maintenance status, avionics, and systems.
3. Pilot
   - Assesses physical, mental, and emotional readiness using tools like IMSAFE (Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion).
   - Includes proficiency, experience, and confidence in current conditions.
4. Passengers
   - Considers their needs, experience, and potential distractions.
   - Managing expectations and workload (e.g., briefing nervous passengers or utilizing a co-pilot).
5. Programming
   - Evaluates avionics and automation use, including GPS, autopilot, and navigation systems.
   - Ensures familiarity with equipment to avoid “button pushing” distractions in critical phases of flight.

Question 19

What is risk management?

Answer 19

Decision making processes designed to systematically identify hazards, assess risk and determine best course of action to mitigate or eliminate chance of harm or negative outcomes.
E.g. PAVE, 3G, DECIDE

Question 20

What is a hazard?

Answer 20

A present condition, object, or circumstance that could contribute to undesired dangerous event.

E.g. propeller blade nick, wrong fuel, tower.

Question 21

What is the 3-P Model for practical risk management?

Answer 21

A structured method pilots use to continuously assess and mitigate risks before and during a flight. It helps in making proactive decisions to enhance safety.

Perceive – Identify hazards that could affect the flight.
- Use the PAVE Model (Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External Pressures) to systematically evaluate risks.
- Example: Is there deteriorating weather ahead? Is the aircraft overweight?

Process – Analyze the impact of the identified hazards.
- Use the CARE Model (Consequences, Alternatives, Reality, External pressures) to evaluate risks.
- Example: If I continue into worsening weather, what are my options?

Perform – Implement a risk mitigation strategy and take action.
- Use the TEAM Model (Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, Mitigate) to decide the best course of action.
- Example: Should I divert, change altitude, or delay the flight?

Question 22

Factors that reduce pilots ability to manage workload

Answer 22

Environmental conditions

Physiological Stress

Psychological Stress

Question 23

How to decrease workload

Answer 23

Stop

Think

Slow Down

Prioritize (Aviate, Navigate, Communicate)

Question 24

Possible errors in checklist usage

Answer 24

• distraction causes missed item
• item performed incorrectly
• not used during proper phase of flight
• head down too long
• not available to use
• memory items not confirmed

Question 25

CFIT Factors

Answer 25

- lack of pilot currency - loss of situational awareness - pilot distraction - breakdown of SRM or ADM - MSA not complied with - descent/arrival not planned well

Question 26

Likelihood of CFIT at destination can be reduced by knowing these items (9)

Answer 26

- airport location - runway lighting - weather / daylight conditions - approach specifications - ATC capabilities and limitations - type of operation - departure procedures - controller / pilot phraseology - crew configuration

Question 27

Operational techniques to help avoid CFIT

Answer 27

- maintain situational awareness - adhere to Departure Procedures - know local terrain and obstacles - adhere to published routes and minimum altitudes - fly a stabilized approach - understand ATC clearances and instructions - don't be complacent

Question 28

Automation management is the

Answer 28

demonstrated ability to control and navigate aircraft by automated installed systems.

Question 29

Demonstrated proficiency required when using advanced avionics or automated systems (3)

Answer 29

- what to expect - how to monitor system - be prepared to take appropriate action

Question 30

What is automation bias?

Answer 30

A relative willingness of a pilot to trust and use automated systems, becoming detached from aircraft operation which increases risk.

Question 31

Acute fatigue is defined as

Answer 31

Tiredness after long periods of physical and mental strain, muscular effort, immobility, or monotony. Use rest and sleep to recover.

Question 32

Chronic fatigue defined as

Answer 32

Not enough time for recovery between acute fatigue. Your performance falls, and risks get taken. It requires a prolonged period of rest.

Question 33

What are the 8 types of spatial disorientation?

Answer 33

Inversion Illusion Coriolis Illusion Elevator Illusion False Horizon Leans Autokinesis Graveyard Spin & Graveyard Spiral Somatogravic Illusion ICEFLAGS

Question 34

What are the landing error illusions? (5)

Answer 34

- runway width illusions - runway and terrain slope illusions - featureless terrain - ground lights - atmospheric

Question 35

What is Coriolis Illusion?

Answer 35

You are in a turn and quickly pick up a pen that dropped or need to look at the iPad on your lap and then the approach plate. You quickly move your head back to level and feel like you are pitching, rolling, and yawing at the same time. (It has been described as a feeling of tumbling down a hill.)

Question 36

What is a Graveyard Spiral?

Answer 36

Whilst in a gentle turn, your inner ear adjusts to the turn, and stops sending turn signals to your brain. When you finally notice and correct the turn, it feels like you’ve started turning in the opposite direction. In reaction to this false perception, you re-enter the original turn. As you continue this unnoticed turn, your aircraft starts to lose altitude (because the nose will drop during a turn). If you pull back on the yoke without leveling the wings, you’ll tighten the turn and descend even faster.

Question 37

What is a Graveyard Spin?

Answer 37

Once a spin is recovered from, the motion-sensing system has the illusion of spinning in the opposite direction. This disorientation can cause the pilot to spin again.

Question 38

What is Somatogravic Illusion?

Answer 38

Caused when a rapid acceleration pushes the pilot back into the seat, giving a feeling of a high pitch-up nose-up attitude. The pilot may push the nose low or to a dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by quick reduction of the throttles can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up or stall attitude.

Question 39

What is Inversion Illusion?

Answer 39

The pilot goes from a steep climb to level and feels like tumbling backward. The pilot pushes the nose down, which may intensify the illusion.

Question 40

What is Elevator Illusion?

Answer 40

An abrupt upward vertical change (such as an updraft) can create the illusion of being in a climb, and the disoriented pilot pushes the nose down. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a descent, and the disoriented pilot pushes the nose up.

Question 41

What is False Horizon Illusion?

Answer 41

Sloping cloud formations with an obscured horizon, and a dark scene with ground lights and stars, can create the illusion of not being aligned correctly with actual horizon.

Question 42

What is Autokinesis Illusion?

Answer 42

When dark, a static light appears to move when stared at for many seconds. If trying to align the aircraft with light, loss of aircraft control can occur.

Question 43

What is runway width illusion?

Answer 43

A narrow runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is at higher altitude than it actually is, and pilot may dangerously fly a lower approach. A wider runway can create illusion that aircraft is lower than it actually is and pilot may attempt to level out too high.

Question 44

What is runway and terrain slope illusion?

Answer 44

An upsloping runway or terrain can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it is (and pilot may fly lower approach).

Question 45

What is featureless terrain illusion?

Answer 45

An absence of ground features can create an illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, and pilot may fly lower than needed approach. It can occur over water, darkened area, and snow.

Question 46

What are atmospheric illusions (landing error illusion)?

Answer 46

Rain on the windscreen can create an illusion of greater height. Atmospheric haze can create illusion of greater distance from runway. Both of these risk flying lower approaches and/or flying a steep approach.

Question 47

What are ground lighting illusions?

Answer 47

Lights along a straight path can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. Bright runway end approach lights (especially where surrounding area is dark) can create an illusion of less distance to the runway than actually true, and may then fly a lower approach. A pilot overflying terrain with few lights to provide height cues may make lower than normal approach.