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Human Physiology (BIOL 2410/2420) > Adrenal Gland + pancreas > Flashcards

Adrenal Gland + pancreas Flashcards

1
Q

What are teh parts of the adrenal gland from the inside out?

A
  • Medulla
  • Zona reticularis (produces mineralocorticoids)
  • Zona fasiculata (produces glucocorticoids)
  • Zona glomerulosa (produces adrenal androgens)
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2
Q

What is the most prominent steroids released from the adrenal cortex?

A
  1. Zona reticularis - mineralocorticoids - aldosterone (from corticosterone)
  2. Zona fasiculata - Glucocorticoid - Cortisol (from corticosterone)
  3. Zona glomerulosa - Androgens and Estrogens
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3
Q

What is released by the adrenal medulla?

A
  1. Epinephrine (80%)
  2. Norepinephrine (20%)
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4
Q

What are the parent molecules of adrenal hormones?

A
  1. Pregnane: produces pregnenalone
  2. Androstane: produces testosterone
  3. Estrane: produces estradiol
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5
Q

How are androgens synthesized?

A

DHEA creates androstenedione which creates testosterone which creates DHT

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6
Q

How are estrogens synthesized?

A

Estrone = androstenedione + aromatase

Estradiol = estrone OR testosterone + aromatase

Estriol = Estradiol

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7
Q

What is aldosterone’s function?

A

Regulates body fluid volume by promoting Na+ retention and K+ excretion in the distal and collecting tubules of nephron in kidney

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8
Q

What controls aldosterone?

A
  1. Renin angiotensin system
  2. Circulating K+ concentrations
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9
Q

What is hyperaldosteronism?

A

Primary (Conn’s syndrome) or secondary; results in hypernatremia, hypokalemia and hypertension

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10
Q

What is adrenogenital syndrome?

A

Adult biological females: masculinisation, facial hair, deepening of voice

Newborn biological females: pseudohermaphrodism

Adult biological males: no effect

Pubertal biological males: pseudopuberty

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11
Q

What is adrenarche

A

part of puberty that involves gradual maturation of the adrenal glands and the production of more androgens

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12
Q

What is the cortisol stress pathway?

A
  1. Stress/diurnal rhythm triggers hypothalamus to produce CRH
  2. CRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH
  3. ACTH triggers adrenal cortex to release cortisol
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13
Q

What does cortisol do?

A
  1. increase blood glucose by stimulating gluconeogenesis and glucose uptake by muscle
  2. Increase blood AA by stimulating protein degradation
  3. Increase blood fatty acids by stimulating lipolysis
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14
Q

What are glucocorticoids’ actions outside energy generation?

A
  1. vascular collapse during stressful events
  2. atrophy of lymphatic system
  3. anti inflammatory effects
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15
Q

What is cushings syndrome?

A

Hypersecretion of CRH or ACTH, symptoms include excess glucose, fat depostiion and facial hair excess

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16
Q

What is addisons disease?

A

hyposecretion of cortisol, symptoms include weakness, weight loss, hypotension and hypoglycemia

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17
Q

What is the primary alarm response?

A
  1. surge of catecholamine (eye dilation, heart rate)
  2. increase in basal metabolic rate
  3. increase blood flow
  4. hypatic glycogenolysis
18
Q

What is the secondary resistance response?

A
  1. continued mobilisation of glucose for central organs
  2. breakdown of alternative energy stores (lipids, proteins)
  3. continued primary alarm response
19
Q

What is the tertiary exhaustion response?

A
  1. muscle wasting, hyperglycemia
  2. atrophy of immune system and gastric ulcers
  3. vascular derangements
20
Q

What is the function of the adrenal medulla?

A

Release norepinephrine and epinephrine and act as extension of sympathetic nervous system.

21
Q

What is the difference of epinephrine inding to alpha receptor and beta receptor?

A

alpha: constricts blood vessel
beta: dilates blood vessel

22
Q

What are hormones released by the pancreas?

A
  1. insulin and amylin (from B or beta cells)
  2. glucagon (from alpha cells)
  3. somatostatin (released from D or delta cells)
  4. pancreatic polypeptide, released from PP or F cells
23
Q

What does amylin do?

A

Released with insulin and slows down appearance of glucose in the blood

24
Q

WHat does somatostatin do?

A

Released in response to increased glucose and amino acid levels; inhibits digestive absorptive processes

25
Q

What does the pancreatic polypeptide do?

A

inhibits the secretion of pancreatic enzymes including somatostatin

26
Q

What is the pathway of insulin secretion?

A
  1. Glucose taken up by GLUT
  2. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to make ATP/ADP
  3. ATP fuels Katp channel which allows release of K+
  4. Release of K+ hyperpolarizes the cell which cuases Calcium channel to open
  5. Intake of calcium triggers insulin secretion
27
Q

What’s the difference between Type I and type II diabetes?

A

I: lack of insulin secretion

II: lack of insulin sensitivity

28
Q

How does insulin facilitate glucose transport?

A
  1. Insulin creates a signal cascade in a hepatocyte that triggers the conversion of intracellular glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, which lowers intracellular concentration shifting the gradient to move inwards through GLUT2
  2. Insulin creates a signal cascade that triggers the exoctyosis of GLUT4 transporters into the membrane to increase glucose permeability
29
Q

What are two ways blood glucose is increased and ways blood glucose is decreased?

A

Increased: glucose absorption from digestive tract + hepatic glucose production (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis)

Decrease: transport of glucose into muscle (storage), energy production, urinary excretion of glucose

30
Q

How is insulin first synthesized?

A

Proinsulin cleaves connecting peptide (C-peptide) to form A chain and B chain connected by disulfide bonds.

31
Q

How does insulin affect carbohydrate concentrations?

A
  1. Facilitiates glucose transport into the cell by keeping intracellular concentrations low and exocytosing GLUT vesicles
  2. Inhibits glycogenolysis in liver
  3. Inhibits gluconeogenesis by reducing circulating amino acids
32
Q

What are insulin’s actions on fat?

A
  1. Inhibits lipolysis
  2. Stimulates fatty acid uptake in adipose tissue
  3. Stimulates glucose uptake and conversion to triglycerides
33
Q

What are insulins actions on protein?

A
  1. Promotes amino acid uptake
  2. stimulate protein synthesis
  3. inhibits protein degradation
34
Q

What is the pathway of insulin deficiency in the liver?

A
  1. Increase in glycogenolysis
  2. Hyperglycemia
  3. Glucosuria (glucose in urine)
  4. Pull of water into nephron
  5. constant urination
  6. dehydration
  7. low blood volume, increase in drinking, cell shrinkage
  8. Low blood volume + nervous system malfunction
35
Q

What is the pathway of insulin deficiency in the cell?

A
  1. Decreased glucose uptake in cells
  2. intracellular glucose deficiency + hyperglycemia
  3. Polyphagia (constant hunger)
36
Q

What is the insulin deficiency pathway in terms of fats?

A
  1. Increased lipolysis, low triglyceride synthesis
  2. increased blood fatty acids
  3. utilization oof ketone bodies as energy
  4. ketosis
  5. metabolic acidosis
  6. increased ventilation to maintain blood pH, diabetic coma
37
Q

What is the pathway of insulin deficiency in terms of protein?

A
  1. decrease in amino acid uptake + increase in protein degradation
  2. increase in blood amino acids + muscle wasting
  3. increase in gluconeogenesis from amino acids
  4. aggravation of hyperglycemia
38
Q

What is glucagon’s effect on carbohydrates?

A

Stimulates hepatic glycogenolysis (via phosphorylase) and gluconeogenesis (via glycogen synthase)

39
Q

What is glucagon’s effect on fats?

A
  1. promotes fat breakdown and release of tri/di/monoglyceride lipase’s from fats
  2. inhibits hepatic ketogenesis (conversion of free fatty acids to ketone bodies)
40
Q

What is glucagon’s relationship to proteins?

A

Promotes hepatic protein catabolism to free amino acids for gluconeogenesis.

41
Q

How do alpha and beta cells respond to a high concentration of amino acids in the blood?

A

Beta: increase in production of insulin to take up amino acid into cells

Alpha: increase in production of glucagon to release glucose to fuel insulin-induced protein synthesis

Human Physiology (BIOL 2410/2420) (15 decks)

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