Adolescence Flashcards
What is adrenarche?
The timing of the maturation of the adrenal gland (a small gland located just above the kidneys)
When does adrenarche occur?
Between the ages of 6 and 11
What happens between the ages of 6 & 11 during adrenarche?
The adrenal gland secretes low levels of DHEA, the metabolism of which leads to the circulation of both testosterone & estradiol (the primary sex steroids)
What is an example of the expression of the “underground” biological processes that occur during adrenarche?
A child developing their first crush
When does gonadarche occur?
Between the ages of 13 & 20.
What is menarche?
The occurrence of a girl’s first period.
What is spermarche?
The occurrence of a boy’s first ejaculation.
What is activated during gonadarche?
The pituitary gland (near the hypothalamus)
What happens during gonadarche, aside from the activation of the pituitary gland?
Growth hormones are released, the sex organs mature (mature ova which are present since before birth are released) & sperm are manufactured.
Which kind of sex characteristics change during gonadarche?
Secondary sex characteristics
At what rate has the age of puberty onset decreased by over the past 150 years?
At a rate of 2 years
What triggers the onset of puberty?
Fat stores
What may change during puberty?
Health successes & social behaviours
What may have an impact on the onset of puberty?
Childhood nutrition & health status (through reduced childhood infections)
What is a puberty accelerator?
Stress
What is 1 of the stressors most effective at accelerating puberty?
Familial disruption, including father absenteeism
Has menarche begun earlier or later over time in some countries?
Earlier
What does the evolutionary theory of socialisation posit?
That early stressors can lead to early puberty
Which theory is taken from the original “parental investment theory” (Trivers, 1974)?
The evolutionary theory of socialisation
What is the idea of the “parental investment theory”?
That you model your ideas of parental investment on your childhood environment & that can trigger differences in pubertal onset.
What gradually increases over time for both boys & girls?
Height
What rapidly increases, then rapidly decreases, for both boys & girls?
Height gain per year
What happens at about the age of 13 for girls, & 16 for boys?
A final maturational growth spurt
Who tend to be less satisfied with their sizes, weights, & figures?
Girls who mature earlier than their peers.
Who only have temporary negative perceptions of their body image?
Boys who mature later than their peers
What kinds of issues can boys who mature early run into?
Low self-control, low emotional stability, risky behaviour & legal troubles.
What kinds of issues can girls who mature early run into?
Low self-control, low emotional stability, early sexual activity, deteriorating school performance, truancy, risky behaviour, shoplifting, running away, & evoking the attention of older boys.
Which neuroanatomical change occurs during adolescence?
The brain regions associated with self-reflection (the dorsal mPFC) develop.
What activates the dmPFC?
Reflecting on one’s own thoughts/ personality traits that describe oneself
What shift occurs between adolescence & adulthood?
The shift of the brain’s ‘focus’ from the mPFC to the temporal regions
What changes occur during adolescence?
Different neurocognitive strategies are used when making self-referential judgements & neuroanatomical changes occur.
What are the cortical neural correlates of cognitive control?
Circuitry in the prefrontal cortex becomes more fine-tuned & less activation is needed to overcome interference.
What happens if someone has weak cognitive control?
They may engage in risky behaviours
What are the subcortical neural correlates of cognitive control?
The caudate nucleus connects with the PFC.
According to demographic evidence, what caused the onset of sexual relations to reduce between the 1950s & 60s?
The unravelling of the grouping of marriage status & entrance to the labour force
What suggests that social context influences the onset of sexual relations?
Demographic evidence showing a reduction in the onset of sexual relations between the 1950s & 60s due to the unravelling of the grouping of marriage status & entrance to the labour force.
In the 1950s, by what age was 50% of the female population married?
20
In the 1950s, by what age was 50% of the male population married?
23
When did people begin to get married later (in their late 20s & 30s)?
By 2000
When does adolescence become culturally defined as a life stage?
When full-time education replaces full-time employment as the primary activity of young people.
Which societies place premium on education & training?
Those with advanced economies
Which societies are sheltered from the adult world?
Those with advanced economies
Which societies engage in youth-based worlds that are age-segregated?
Those with advanced economies
What is the central paradox faced by advanced industrial societies?
They deem adolescence & early adulthood to be life stages in ways that inevitably render them problematic (they simultaneously indulge & castigate their youths)
Which quote from Aristotle demonstrates his view of youth?
“Passionate, irascible & apt to be carried away by their impulses”
Which quote by Erik Erikson expresses his views on the individual & society?
His quote stating that there is a “mutual fit of individual & environment… that is, of the individual’s capacity to relate to an ever-expanding life space of people & institutions, on the one hand, &, on the other hand, the readiness of these people & institutions to make him part of an ongoing cultural concern.”
What was the notion behind Erik Erikson’s epigenetic principle?
That development is predetermined.
What did Erik Erikson believe about crises?
That we go through several, during the immature, critical, & resolution phases of our lives.
What did Erik Erikson believe about the ego?
That it has strengths & weaknesses.
Did Erik Erikson believe that there was variation or constancy within the “universal steps”?
Variation
Which factors can influence identity & role confusion in adolescence?
Loyalty & friendship
According to Erik Erikson’s theory of identity vs. role confusion, what do adolescents need to develop during this stage?
A sense of identity.
According to Erik Erikson’s theory of identity vs. role confusion, what is associated with developing a sense of identity?
Defining who you are, what you value, & which direction you want to go in during your life; committing to a vocation, personal relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic group & ideals; & exploring & resolve an identity crisis.
According to Erik Erikson’s theory of identity vs. role confusion, what is associated with role confusion?
A lack of direction & definition of self; restricted adolescent exploration; & lack of preparation for the stages of adulthood.
According to Piaget’s views of adolescence, when does the formal operational stage occur?
From 11 years old onwards.
According to Piaget’s views of adolescence, what is involved in the formal operational stage?
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (from general theories to specific predictions), propositional thought (logical evaluation without real-world reference), & abstract thought.
What are the consequences of adolescents’ capacity to think abstractly, combined with the physical changes that they endure?
They think more about themselves
What did Piaget believe about the capacity of adolescents to think abstractly (combined with the physical changes that they endure)?
That this causes them to develop a new form of egocentrism (the inability to distinguish the abstract perspectives of the self & others).
What is associated with the imaginary audience tendency?
Increased awareness of others’ perspectives.
What are 2 components of the imaginary audience tendency?
The conviction that you are the focus of everyone’s attention & concern; & extreme self-consciousness & sensitivity to public criticism.
Does the RT between 1st-person- & 3rd-person-perspective-taking increase or decrease with age?
It decreases with age
What does the fact that RT between 1st-person- & 3rd-person-perspective-taking decreases with age indicate?
Either increased proficiency/ an ability to use themself as the standard more often.
What is involved in the development of perspective-taking?
The imaginary audience tendency
Which theory is involved with the development of the imaginary audience tendency?
The “new look” theory (Lapsley)
What does the “new look” theory suggest?
That separation-individuation occurs in correlation with the imaginary audience tendency.
What does the separation-individuation theory focus on?
The development of one’s own identity as separate from their parents, causing one to become self-conscious, leading to the development of the imaginary audience tendency.
What is the belief behind the social-perspective theory?
That during the development of the imaginary audience tendency, individuals develop an awareness of others having the capacity to evaluate them (leading to the overestimation of this happening).
What does personal fable refer to in relation to the development of the imaginary audience tendency?
An individual’s inflated opinion of their own importance (due to the imaginary audience tendency); an individual’s feeling of no one else being able to understand what they’re experiencing; & an individual’s feeling of invulnerability.
What does the “looking-glass self” refer to in relation to the development of perspective-taking?
Reflected appraisals based on our beliefs about how others see us (the self as viewed by other people)
What becomes more coherent with age in relation to perspective-taking?
Self-concept
Who use the self as a basis for judging others once their self-concept has become relatively coherent?
Adolescents
Who claimed, “When I was a boy of 14, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around; but when I got to be 21, I was astonished at how much he had learned in seven years”?
Mark Twain
Who tend to feel older than they are?
Younger people
Who tend to feel younger than they are?
Older people
Which effect is most prominent in the oldest & youngest populations?
The subjective age effect
What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning?
The preconventional, conventional, & postconventional levels.
What are the 2 sub-stages of Kohlberg’s proposed preconventional level?
Punishment & obedience; & instrumental relativism.
What are the 2 sub-stages of Kohlberg’s proposed conventional level?
The good boy-nice girl orientation & maintaining social order.
What are the 2 sub-stages of Kohlberg’s proposed postconventional level?
Social contract & universal ethical principles
What level are most 7-10-year-olds reasoning at?
The preconventional level
What level are most 13-16-year-olds reasoning at?
The conventional level
How many subjects show the postconventional type of reasoning?
Few
Do numbers of preconventional statements increase/ decrease between the ages of 7 & 16?
They decrease
Do numbers of conventional statements increase/ decrease between the ages of 7 & 13?
They increase
Do numbers of conventional statements increase/ decrease between the ages of 13 & 16?
They decrease
Do numbers of postconventional statements increase/ decrease between the ages of 7 & 16?
They increase
How many types of bias are associated with criticism of Kohlberg’s theory?
2
What are the 2 types of bias that are associated with criticism of Kohlberg’s theory?
Cultural & gender biases
How could Kohlberg’s theory be viewed as culturally biased?
As some cultures aren’t reflected in his theory
How could Kohlberg’s theory be viewed as gender-biased?
Due to his equation of moral competence & development with justice & rights.
Is the connection between moral reasoning & moral behaviour often direct/ indirect?
Indirect
Aside from cultural & gender biases associated with Kohlberg’s theory, what else could be criticised about it?
The connection between moral reasoning & moral behaviour is often indirect
