Addiction

Question 1

What is an addiction

Answer 1

Addiction is a disorder in which an individual consumes a substance i.e. nicotine, or engages in a particular behaviour i.e. gambling, that is pleasurable but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful consequences.

key features are dependence (physical and psychological, tolerance and withdrawal syndrome.

Question 2

What is psychological dependence in relation to addiction

Answer 2

This is the mental and emotional compulsion to keep taking a substance as the individual believes that they cannot cope with work and social life without a particular drug e.g. alcohol, nicotine or behaviour e.g. gambling
Absence of the drug/behaviour causes the individual to feel anxious or irritable and this leads to a craving for the substance.

Question 3

What is meant by the term PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE in relation to addiction (2 marks)

Answer 3

Physical dependence is a state of the body that occurs when withdrawal syndrome is produced
from stopping the substance use/behavior e.g. Nausea, headaches and shaking.

Question 4

Explain what is meant by the term tolerance (2 - 4 marks).

Answer 4

Tolerance arises when you have taken a drug/maintained a certain behaviour for some time, and due to the repeat exposure the response is reduced. When tolerance occurs an individual will need more of it in order to feel the same physical and psychological effects.

Examples of tolerance:
Cellular Tolerance- CT takes place when brain neurons adapt their responsiveness to higher levels of a substance.

Metabolic Tolerance
MT takes place when a substance has been metabolised quicker and therefore leaves the body.

Behavioural Tolerance
When individuals learn through experience to adjust their behaviour to compensate for the effects of the drug e.g. walking more slowly to avoid falling over when drunk.

Question 5

Explain what is meant by the term withdrawal syndrome (4 marks)

Answer 5

Withdrawal syndrome is the collection of psychological and physical symptoms an individual will experience when they no longer have a substance in their system/engage in a particular behaviour. Withdrawal syndrome includes low mood, feeling nauseous, achy, in pain or experiencing tremors.

The seriousness of the withdrawal syndrome can depend on a variety of factors:
1. The substance used/type of behaviour – What type of substance is being taken/behaviour is being engaged?
2. The amount of substance consumed – How much of a substance does an individual take at once?
3. Drug-use/behaviour pattern – How often does the substance use/behaviour occur?

Question 6

what is a risk factor in relation to addiction

Answer 6

A risk factor is anything internal or external that increases the likelihood of an individual starting to use drugs or engage in addictive behaviour.

Question 7

GENETIC VULNERABILITY- in the development in addiction

Answer 7

It is a possibility that we may inherit a predisposition/vulnerability that increases the risk of this disorder (addiction).

There are two reasons genetic vulnerability can occur:

D2 Receptor
Within the brain we have a number of receptors that communicate with neurotransmitters.
The D2 receptor is responsible for communicating with Dopamine (neurotransmitter) – the number of d2 receptors someone has is determined by genetics.
An individual with LOW LEVELS of D2 receptors (leading to less dopamine activity) will not experience the same amount of pleasure from a substance for example, chocolate, as someone with the regular number of D2 receptors therefore, they turn to more addictive substances such as nicotine to experience the same feeling of pleasure.

Metabolism
Some individuals are able to metabolise (break down) certain addictive substances a lot faster than others, therefore making it easier for them to become addicted as they may need more to have the same effects. An individual’s rate of metabolism is inherited through their genes.

Question 8

Risk factor 1- genetic vulnerability AO3

Answer 8

weakness- based on correlation research where cause and effect cant be establishes. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as genetics and addiction but doesn’t show which came first. eg it could be addiction that causes abnormalities in d2 receptors. Therefore lacks internal validity as it doesn’t allow to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction

RTS conducted by kendler et al using data from national swedish adoption study. They looked at adult who had been adopted as children, from biological families in which at least one person had an addiction. These children later had a greater risk of developing an addiction themselves compared to adopted individuals with no addicted parent in their biological fam. this increases validity.

Question 9

Risk factor 2: stress

Answer 9

Stress is where an individual experiences a state of arousal (physical and psychological state) that occurs when they believe they do not have the ability to cope with the perceived threat. Periods of chronic, long lasting stress and traumatic life events in childhood have been linked with increased risk of developing an addiction.

People who experience stress may turn to addictive substances or behaviours as a form of self medication for stress (to avoid pain or cope)

Question 10

Risk factor 2: stress AO3

Answer 10

based on correlation research where cause and effect cant be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as stress and addiction but doesn’t show which came first. eg it could be addiction that causes a person to become stressed (through loss of money, lack of sleep, effects on their job). Therefore lacks internal validity as it doesn’t allow to conclude that stress does make someone more at risk of addiction

Question 11

Risk factor 3: Personality

Answer 11

an addictive personality suggesting a correlation between certain traits and addiction.

It is suggested that anti-social personality disorder leads to a high vulnerabity to addiction, which can include neurotic and psychotic personality traits

High levels of neuroticism = High levels of anxiety, irritability, and low self-efficacy.
High levels of psychoticism = aggressive,behaviour, impulsive and sometimes emotionally detached , leading to risk taking and sensation seeking behaviour.

Question 12

Personality AO3

Answer 12

strength- RTS from 2 psychologists who assessed the personality of a sample of 221 drug addicts and 310 non-addicted ppt using eysencks personality questionnaire. They found evidence of high psychotism and neorotism scores in ddicted ppt compared to non. Therefore supports the role od neorotism and psychotism personality traits.

based on correlation research where cause and effect cant be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as personality and addiction but doesn’t show which came first. eg it could be addiction that causes a person to show traits such as anxiety, irritability and impulsivity rather than these traits causing addiction. Therefore lacks internal validity as it doesn’t allow to conclude that personality does make someone more at risk of addiction

Question 13

Family influences

Answer 13

Family members can have an effect on an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour’s over the course of their development.

One family influence which can create vulnerability to addiction is perceived parental approval. If an adolescents believes their parents show positive attitudes towards a particular addictive substance/behaviour, then they will be more vulnerable to developing the addiction themselves.

Also adolescents who believe that their parents have little interest in monitoring their behaviour (e.g. internet use, peer relations) are significantly more likely to develop an addiction.

Also, exposure within family life to a substance/behaviour creates risk of developing an addiction.lso, Social Learning Theory could play a role.

An individual could observe a family member (role model) engaging in addictive behaviour and imitate this behaviour as they identify with them and want to be like them.

Question 14

Family influences AO3

Answer 14

RTS - madras et al. she studied families with adolescents where the parents used cannabis. She found a strong positive correlation between the parents use of cannabis and the adolescents use of cannabis, nicotine, alcohol and opioids. This may show that the parents were accepting of drug use so went on to use themselves. It may also be as they observe parents using cannabis and modelled behaviour.

Question 15

Peers- AO1

Answer 15

An individual’s peers are people who share their interests, age, similar backgrounds and social status.
Peers can influence an individual’s development during adolescence as they spend more time with them, and less with their family. Social Learning theory can explain addiction.

peers may act as gateways to addictive behaviour.

O’Connell et al (2009) suggests that adolescents are at risk of developing alcohol addiction due to the influence of their peers because of three major elements:
1. Attitudes and Norms to drinking alcohol – These can be influenced by groups of peers who drink alcohol. (NSI,ISI)
2. Opportunities to drink alcohol – The more experienced the peers are in drinking, the more opportunities to drink alcohol they can provide an individual with.
3. Individual’s perception - An individual may over-estimate how much their peers drink, and therefore drink more to ‘keep up with them’.

Question 16

Peers AO3

Answer 16

based on correlation research where cause and effect cant be established. Research has shown a link between risk factors such as peers and addiction but doesn’t show which came first. eg it could be addiction that causes a person to seek out peers who share the same addictive behaviors/interests eg drug/alcohol misuse rather than their peers and norms making them engage in addictive behaviour. Therefore lacks internal validity as it doesn’t allow to conclude that peers do make someone more at risk of addiction

Question 17

EXPLANATIONS FOR NICOTINE ADDICTION-BRAIN NEUROCHEMISTRY INCLUDING THE ROLE OF DOPAMINE AO1

Answer 17

Brain neurochemistry is an internal (biological) explanation for nicotine addiction, that relates to the chemicals inside the brain that regulate psychological functioning. It states that nicotine addiction is formed due to the repeated activation of the brains reward pathway.

1. Smoking occurs Nicotine is inhaled and reaches the blood stream and the brain in less than 10 seconds.
2. Ventral Tegmental Area Nicotine indirectly stimulates the VTA (where a large number of dopamine neurons are concentrated)
3. Dopamine activity is increased into the mesolimbic pathway then dopamine reaches the d2 receptors on the nucleus accumbens.

4.This leads to EUPHORIA, increased alertness and decreased anxiety (and MOTIVATION to perform the behaviour again)

5. This activity in the limbic system then releases dopamine and activates the pre frontal cortex.
6. Pre-frontal Cortex- Responsible for decision making and therefore, makes the decision to keep performing the behaviour (smoking) to get the same reward.

Question 18

Evaluation – AO3 – Brain Neurochemistry Explanation of Nicotine Addictions

Answer 18

RTS- McEvoy carried out research to support brain neurochemistry and the role of dopamine. They studied smoking behaviour in ppl with schiz who were taking the drug (haloperidol). This drug is a dopamine antagonist by blocking dopamine receptors (lowering the level of dopamine in the brain). It was found that within the sample of patients being treated with this specific drug, smoking rates increased. Therefore, supporting the role of dopamine as an explanation of addiction to nicotine, as the patients sought nicotine in order to increase their level of dopamine in the brain and experience euphoria.

Weakness- research can be criticised for sample bias as it uses ppt who have schizophrenia. They may not be neurotypical and therefore difficult to generalise findings on low dopamine activity and smoking behaviour to the target pop of smokers w out schiz. therefore limiting how far this study can be used.

Brain neurochemistry as an explanation of nicotine addiction can be criticised for biological reductionism. This is because the theory reduces the complex human behaviour iof addiction down to dopamine levels in the brain. This neglect a holistic approach, which takes into account how a person’s cultural and social context would influence and explain an individuals nicotine addiction eg adolcents may develop a nicotine addiction due to wanting to fit in with a peer group rather than feeling of euphoria. Therefore the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction may lack validity as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.

Question 19

COGNITIVE THEORY INCLUDING REFERENCE TO COGNITIVE BIAS- AO1 rickwood et all 4 biases

Answer 19

1. Faulty beliefs of Skills and Judgment- Addicted gamblers overestimate their ability to influence a random event, eg they they believe they are skilled at choosing lottery number, making them more likely to gamble. they have an illusion of control)
2. Engaging in Personal traits/ Ritual
   behaviours- addicted gamblers believe they have a greater probability of winning over other people because they are lucky or superstitious eg touching a certain item of clothing before placing a bet.
3. Selective Recall- Addicted gamblers remember certain types of information/memories/events better than others eg they are more likely to recall their wins but forget their loses describing them as unexplainable mysteries, leading them to be more likely to gamble.
4. Faulty perceptions- Addicted gamblers have distorted views about the operation of chance (gamblers fallacy) eg Belief that a losing streak cannot last and will always be ended with a win, making them more likely to gamble.

Question 20

Cognitive approach - cognitive bias

Answer 20

The cognitive approach sees addictive behaviour as a result of cognitive distortions or faulty thought processes.

Cognitive bias- is where a persons thinking, memory and attentional processes are faulty leading a person to make irrational judgements and poor decisions. These biases influence how gamblers think about behaviour, what they pay attention to and what they remember.

Question 21

Evaluation – AO3 – Cognitive Theory of Gambling Addictions

Answer 21

Griffiths (1994) conducted research to support the cognitive explanation for gambling addictions, a natural experiment on a a sample of 30 regular gamblers comparing them to a control group of 30 occasional gamblers. They played on a fruit machine and were asked to ‘think aloud’ and verbalise their though processes, whilst playing they were interviewed afterwards. They found that regular gamblers saw themselves as ‘skilful’ at the fruit machine made more irrational statements compared to occasional and were more likely to explain losses as ‘near wins’. Therefore supporting as it demonstrates faulty thought processes and control that gamblers belive they have over random event.

Weakness- the use of ‘thinking aloud’ research has been questioned. This self report method is used in a lot of studies for cog exp of gambling. Some psychologists say it does not necessarily represent what they really think. random remarks made whilst gambling may not reflect an addicts deeply held beliefs about chance and skill. Therefore researchers may get misleading impression that their though processes are irrational when they’re not. limiting the research validity.

The cognitive theory and an explanation of gambling addiction has practical applications. This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by cognitive biases has led to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy. This is effective in treating behaviour by identifying and challenging irrational thought processes that have lead an individual to gamble. Therefore, the cognitive explanation ofgambling is an importan part of applied psychology as it helps people in the real world.