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Adaptions for transport in animals Flashcards

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1
Q

open circulatory systems

A

blood does not move around the body in blood vessels but it bathes the tissues directly while held in a cavity the haemocoel

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2
Q

insects-open blood system

A

long dorsal (top) tube shaped heart, running the length of the body.
pumps blood out at low pressure into the haemocoel, where materials are exchanged between the blood and body cells
blood returns slowly to the heart and the open circulation starts again

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3
Q

oxygen- open blood system in insects

A

oxygen diffuses to the tissues from the tracheoles so the blood does not transport oxygen and has no respiratory pigment

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4
Q

closed circulatory systems

A

the blood move in blood vessels
single circulation
double circulation

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5
Q

single circulation

A

the blood moves through the heart once in its passage around the body

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6
Q

single circulation in fish

A

ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills, where the well developed capillary network reduces its pressure.
oxygenated blood is carried to the tissues and from there, deoxygenated blood returns to the atrium of the heart
blood moves to the ventricle and the circulation starts again

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7
Q

single circulation- earthworm

A

blood moves forward in the dorsal vessel, and back in the ventral vessel
five pairs of ‘pseudohearts’, thickened,muscular blood vessels, pump the blood from the dorsal to the ventral vessel and keep it moving

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8
Q

double circulation

A

blood passes through the heart twice in its circuit around the body eg. mammals

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9
Q

double circulation in mammals

A

blood is pumped by a muscular heart at high pressure , giving rapid flow through blood vessels
blood pressure is reduced in the capilliaries of the lungs and and its pressure would be too low to make the circulation effiicent in the rest of the body
instead blood is returned to the heart, which raises its pressure again, to pump it tii the rest of the body
materials are then delivered quickly to the body cells

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10
Q

insect
earthworm
fish
mammal

A

circulation type
closed
closed, single
closed, single
closed,double

respiratory pigment
none
yes
yes
yes

heart
Dorsal tube shaped
Pseudohearts
1 atrium and 1 ventricle
2 atria and 2 ventircles

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11
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

serves the lungs
right side of hearty pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart

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12
Q

systemic circulation

A

serves the body tissues
left side of the heart pumps the oxygentaed blood to the tissues
deoxygentaed blood from the body returns to the right side of the heart

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13
Q

in each circuit

A

the blood passes through heart twice, once through the right side and once through the left side
double circulation of mammal is more efficient than the single circulation of a fish as the oxygenated blood can be pumped around the body at a higher pressure

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14
Q

blood contents

A

made up of cells (45%)
and plasma (55%)

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15
Q

plasma

A

pale yellow liquid
fluid component of the blood comprising water and solutes
blood - cells

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16
Q

affinity

A

degree to which two molecules are attracted to each other

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17
Q

cooperative binding

A

the increasing ease with which heamoglobin binds its second and third oxygen molecules, as the conformation of the heamogloblin molecule changes
allows haemogoblin to pick up oxygen very rapidly in the lungs

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18
Q

oxygen dissociation curve

Hb binds

A

haemoglobin binds oxygen in the lungs, and realeases it in the respiring tissue
Oxygen + Haemoglobin = oxyhaemoglobin
4O2 + Hb = HbO8

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19
Q

red blood cells

A

Erythocytes
red- contain pigment called haemoglobin
transports oxygen from the lungs to the respiring tissue
made in bone marrow, destroyed in the liver

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20
Q

red blood cells- structure

A

biconcave discs- surface area is larger so more oxygen diffuses across the membrane
thin centre makes them look paler in the middle- reduces the diffusion distance making gas exchange faster

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21
Q

red blood cells- no nucleus

A

more room for haemoglobin, maximising oxygen that can be carried

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22
Q

to transport oxygen efficiently

A

haemoglobin must associate readily with oxygen where gas exchange takes place eg. alveoli and readily disassociate with oxygen at the respiring tissues eg. muscle

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23
Q

haemogoblin- 4 haem groups

A

each haem contains an ion of iron (Fe2+)
one oxygen can bind to each iron
first oxygen molecule that attaches changes the shape of Hb molecule- easier for the second molecules to attach
2nd oxygen molecule attaching changes shape again - easier 3rd
cooperative binding
3rd molecule doesnt change shape so it takes up a large increase in oxygen partial pressure to bind the fourth oxygen molecule.

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24
Q

partial pressure of a gas

A

the pressure it would exert if it were only one present

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25
Q

oxygen dissociation curve

A

O2 affinity of haemogoblin is high at high partial pressures of oxygen and oxyhaemogoblin does not release its oxygen
oxygen affinity reduces as the partial ;pressure of oxygen decreases, and oxygen is readily released, meeting respiratory demands
very small decrease in the oxygen partial pressure leads to lot of oxygen dissociating from haemogoblin

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26
Q

if relationship between oxygen partial pressure and % saturation of haemogoblin with oxygen were linear
HIGHER

A

At higher partial pressure of oxygen, haemogoblin oxygen affinity would be too low and so oxygen would be readily released and would not reach the respiring tissues

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27
Q

if relationship between oxygen partial pressure and % saturation of haemogoblin with oxygen were linear
LOWER

A

at lower partial pressure of oxygen, haemogoblins oxygen affinity would be too high and oxygen would not be released in respiring tissues, even at a low oxygen partial pressure

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28
Q

Disassociation in the tissues

A

In the tissues the partial pressure of oxygen is about 2~4 kPa.
At these low partial pressures of oxygen, haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen.
The haemoglobin offloads oxygen to the tissues.

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29
Q

Dissociation in the lungs

A

In the lungs the partial pressure of oxygen is about 11 kPa.
At these high partial pressures of oxygen, haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen.
The haemoglobin becomes saturated with oxygen.

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30
Q

Disassociation of mother

A

In the placental tissues the partial pressure of oxygen is about 2~4 kPa.
The mothers haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen.
The haemoglobin more readily offloads oxygen to the tissues.

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31
Q

Disassociation of foetus

A

At the same partial pressure of oxygen, about 2~4 kPa.
The fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen.
The fetal haemoglobin picks up the oxygen offloaded by the mother.

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32
Q

Transport of oxygen in other animals

A

Dissociation curve is to the left of an adults
The haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult human.
This means it loads or saturates with oxygen very readily at very low partial pressures of oxygen.
They then release the oxygen as extremely low p.p. of oxygen.

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33
Q

lugworm

A

In the sand the partial pressure of oxygen is very low, about 2~4 kPa.
The lugworm has haemoglobin/mogloblin which has an even higher affinity for oxygen than normal human haemoglobin.
The haemoglobin more readily saturates with oxygen to the tissues.

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34
Q

llama

A

lives in an area of high altitude of 2-4kPa where the O2 partial pressure is very low
It’s haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen at all oxygen partial pressure than humans
loads oxygen more readily in the lungs and releases oxygen when oxygen partial pressure is low

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35
Q

Bohr effect

A

The movement of oxygen dissociation curve to the right at a higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide, because at a given oxygen partial pressure, haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen
Accounts for the unloading of oxygen from oxyhemoglobin in respiring tissues where partial pressure carbon dioxide is high and oxygen is needed

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36
Q

Effects of carbon dioxide concentration

A

If the carbon dioxide concentration increases, haemoglobin releases oxygen more readily
At any oxygen partial pressure the haemoglobin is less saturated with oxygen so the data points on the dissociation curve are lower

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37
Q

CO2 curve- tissues

A

In the tissues the partial pressure of oxygen is about 2~4 kPa. The p.p. of carbon dioxide is high due to tissue respiration.
The haemoglobin more readily offloads oxygen to the tissues.

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38
Q

summary of CO2 curve

A

When the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen so it is less efficient at loading oxygen and more efficient at unloading it

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39
Q

transport of Carbon dioxide

A

Transported in:
- in solution in the plasma (aprox 5 percent)
- in HCO3- (aprox 85)
- Bound to haemoglobin as carbamino haemoglobin (aprox 10)

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40
Q

Reactions in red blood cell
1- transport of CO2

A

Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the red blood cell

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41
Q

Reactions in red blood cell
2- transport of CO2

A

Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the combination of carbon dioxide with water, making carbonic acid

42
Q

Reactions in blood cell
3- transport of CO2

A

Carbonic acid dissociates into H + and HCO3- io s

43
Q

reactions in red blood cell
4- transport of CO2

A

HC03- ions diffuse out of blood cell into the plasma

44
Q

reactions in red blood cell
5- transport of CO2

A

To balance the outflow of negative ions and maintain electrochemical neutrality, chloride ions diffuse into the red blood cell from the plasma
Chloride shift

45
Q

chloride shift

A

Diffusion of chloride ions from the plasma into the red blood cell, preserve an electrical neutrality

46
Q

reactions in red blood cell
6- transport of CO2

A

H plus ions cause oxyhemoglobin to dissociate into oxygen and haemoglobin
The H plus ions combined with the haemoglobin to make hemoglobinic acid HHb
Removes hydrogen ions and so pH of red blood cell doesn’t fall

47
Q

Reactions in red blood cell
7- transport of CO2

A

Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cell into the tissues

48
Q

more respiration

A

means more carbon dioxide is present so more oxyhemoglobin dissociates and provides oxygen to respiring cells

49
Q

tunica initima

A

innermost layer, single layer of endothelium
in some arteries, it is supported by elastin-rich collagen
smooth lining, reducing friction and produces minimal resistance to blood flow

50
Q

tunica media

A

middle layer
contains elastic fibres and smooth muscle
thicker in arteries- elastic fibres allow stretching to accommodate changes in blood flow and pressure as blood is pumped from the heart
At a certain point, stretched elastic fibres recoil, pushing blood on through the artery: felt as a pulse, maintains blood pressure
Contraction of smooth muscle regulates blood flow and maintains blood pressure as blood is transported further from the heart

51
Q

tunica externa

A

outer layer
Contains collagen fibres and elastic fibres
Resist overstretching and provide strength

52
Q

Arteries

A

Carry blood away from the heart
Thick muscular wars withstand blood’s high pressure derived from the heart
Arteries branch into smaller vessels called Arterioles that fever subdivide into capillaries

53
Q

capillaries

A

Form a vast network that penetrates all the tissues and organs of the body
Blood from capillaries collect into venules which takes blood into the veins, who h return it to the heart

54
Q

Veins

A

larger diameter lumen and thinner walls with less muscle than arteries- Blood pressure and flow rate are lower
Veins above the heart, blood returns to the heart by gravity - moves through other veins by pressure from surrounding muscles

55
Q

semi lunar valves

A

Veins have these along their length ensuring flow in one direction and preventing back flow;

56
Q

cappilaries- thin walls

A

Only one layer of endothelium on a basement membrane
Pores between the cells can make the capillary walls permeable to water and solutes
So exchange of materials between the blood and tissues takes place

57
Q

Capillaries - small diameter

A

Rate of blood flow slows down
Many capillaries in a capillary bed which reduces the rate of blood flow so that there is plenty of time for the exchange of materials with the surrounding tissue fluid

58
Q

Myogenic contraction

A

The heartbeat is initiated within the muscle cells themselves, and is not dependent on nervous or hormonal simulation

59
Q

The heart

A

Two pumps - oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
Atria and ventricles seperate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

60
Q

Heart- cardiac muscle

A

Cardiac muscle is a specialised tissue with myogenic contraction
Means it can contract and relax rhythmically of its own accord

61
Q

Pumping blood

A
  1. The oxygenated blood enters the right atrium through superior and inferior vena cava
  2. atria contract and this forces the atrio-ventricular valves
    open and blood flows into the right ventricles.
  3. contraction of the ventricles causes
    the atrio-ventricular valves to close and semi-lunar valves to open thus allowing blood to leave the right ventricle through the left pulmonary artery to lungs.
  4. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium through the left pulminary veins
  5. Atrium contracts and left atrial ventricular valve opens allowing blood into the left ventricle
  6. Contraction of the septum closes valves and open semi lunar valves to let the blood up and out of the aorta to the rest of the body
62
Q

atrial systole

A

Atrium walls contract and blood pressure in the atria increases pushing blood through the left and right atrial ventricular valves down into the ventricles which are relaxed

63
Q

Ventricular systole

A

Ventricle walls contract and increase blood pressure in the ventricles
Forces blood up through semi lunar valves out of the heart into pulmonary artery and aorta
Blood cannot flow back from ventricles into atria because atria ventricular valves are closed by the rise in ventricular pressure
Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the aorta carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

64
Q

Diastole

A

atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil of the heart lowers the
pressure inside the heart chambers and blood is drawn from the arteries and
veins thus causing semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries to close,
preventing backflow of blood.

65
Q

heartbeat

A

Two sides of the heart work together - atria contract at the same time followed by ventricles contracting together. Contraction and relaxation of the whole heart is a heartbeat

66
Q

when a chamber contracts

A

It is emptied of blood, when it relaxes it fills with blood again

67
Q

atria walls

A

They have little muscle as blood only has to go to the ventricles
Ventricle walls contain more muscle and generate more pressure as they have to send the blood further, either to the lungs or body

68
Q

left ventricle- thicker muscular wall

A

Than right ventricle as it has to pump the blood all round the body whereas right ventricle only has the pump blood to the lungs

69
Q

valves

A

Valves prevent backflow of blood
Atrio-ventricular valves, Semi Lunar valves at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery and semi lunar valves in veins all operate by closing under high blood pressure prevent him blood flowing backwards

70
Q

Adaptation of capillaries for the exchange of materials

A

Exchange between blood and body cells happen in the capillaries
- Thin permeable walls
- Provide a large service area for exchange of materials
- Blood flows vary slowly through capillaries allowing time for exchange of materials

71
Q

tissue fluid

A

Fluid from the plasma is forced through the capillary walls and (as tissue fluid) bathes the cells supplying them with solutes
Tissue fluid removes waste made by cells
Diffusion of solutes in and out of capillaries relates to blood hydrostatic pressure and solid pressure

72
Q

Atrial end of capillary bed
1

A
  1. Blood is under pressure from pumping of heart and muscle contraction in artery and arteriole walls. High hydrostatic pressure pushes liquid outwards from capillary to spaces between surrounding cells
73
Q

Atrial end of capillary bed
2

A
  1. Plasma is a solution and its low solute potential ( Due to colloidal proteins) tends to pour water back into capillary by osmosis
74
Q

Atrial end of cappillary bed
3

A

Hydrostatic pressure is greater than plasma-solute potential so water and solutes are forced out thru cappilary walls to the spaces between cells

75
Q

Atrial end of cappillary bed
4

A

Solutes are used during cell metabolism so the concentrations in and around the cell is low but in blood is higher. This favours the fusion from the capillaries to the tissue fluid.

76
Q

At the venous end of capillary bed
1

A
  1. Blood hydrostatic pressure is lower than at the arterial end because its volume has been reduced by fluid loss and because friction with capillary wars resist its flow
77
Q

At the venous end of capillary bed
2

A
  1. Plasma proteins are more concentrated in blood because so much water has been lost. Solute potential of remaining plasma is more negative. Osmotic force pulling water inwards is greater than hydrostatic force pushing water outwards so water passes back into capillaries by osmosis
78
Q

At the venous end of capillary bed
3

A
  1. Tissue fluid surrounding cells pick up carbon dioxide and other wastes, which diffuses down a concentration gradient from cells and into capillaries where they are less concentrated
79
Q

At the venous end of capillary bed
4

A
  1. Not all fluid passes back into capillaries. 10% drains into blindly ending lymph capillaries of lymphatic system. Most of lymph fluid eventually returns to venous system through thoracic duct which empties into the left subclavian vein above the heart
80
Q

Features of plasma

A

site- blood vessels
Associated cells- erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes
Respiratory gases- more O2, less CO2
Nutrients- more
Have Large protein molecules
Water potential- lower

81
Q

Feature of tissue fluid

A

site- Surrounding body cells
Associated cells - granulocytes, lymphocytes
Respiratory gases - less O2, more CO2
Nutrients - fewer
No large protein molecules
Water potential - higher

82
Q

Features of lymph

A

Site- lymph capillary vessel
Associated cells - granulocytes, lymphocytes
Respiratory gases- less O2, more CO2
Nutrients - fewer
No large protein molecules
Water potential - higher

83
Q

blood pressure aorta

A

The blood pressure is highest in the aorta and large arteries. It shows the greatest rhythmic fluctuation due to ventricular contractions.

84
Q

blood pressure vessel walls

A

Friction between the blood and the vessel walls, & increased total surface area of vessels reduce the pressure (and speed) of the blood passes into the arterioles.

85
Q

blood pressure cappillaries

A

The surface area increases even more into the capillaries. This also reduces the blood pressure. The effects of the ventricles contractions are lost.

86
Q

Systole definition

A

Stage in the cardiac cycle in which heart muscle contracts

87
Q

diastole definition

A

Stage in the cardiac cycle in which heart muscles relax

88
Q

sino atrial node SAN

A

an area of the heart muscle in the right atrium that initiates a wave of electrical excitation
across the atria, to generate contraction of the heart muscle. called pacemaker

89
Q

atrio ventricular node AVN

A

the only conducting area of the tissue in the wall of the heart between the atria and ventricles, through which electrical excitation, passes from the atria to the conducting tissue in the walls of the ventricles.

90
Q

control of a heartbeat 1

A
  • wave of electrical stimulation arises at the SAN and spreads over both of the atria so they contract together
91
Q

Control of a heartbeat 2

A

Ventricles are electrically insulated from the atria by a thin layer of connective tissue- AVN
Electrical stimulation only spreads to ventricles from this point. The AVN introduces a delay in transmission of electrical impulse
Muscles of the ventricles do not start to contract until muscles of atria have finished contracting

92
Q

Control of heartbeat 3

A

AVN passes the excitation down the nerves of the bundle of hiss, Left and right bundle branches and to the apex of the heart
Excitation is transmitted to Purkinje fibres into the ventricle walls which carry it upwards through the muscles of the ventricle walls

93
Q

Control a heartbeat

A
  1. impulses cause the cardiac muscle in each ventricle to contract simultaneously, from the apex upwards
  2. This pushes the blood up to the aorta and pulmonary artery and empties ventricles completely
94
Q

Electrocardiogram

A

Trace of the voltage changes produced by the heart, detected by electrodes on the skin

95
Q

Electrocardiogram - p-wave

A

Shows voltage change generated by SAN associated with the construction of Atria
atria have less muscle than ventricles so P- waves are small

96
Q

Electrocardiogram - QRS

A

QRS complex shows depolarisation and contractions of ventricles
Ventricles have more muscle than atria so amplitude is bigger than P wave

97
Q

Electrocardiogram- T wave

A

Shows repolarisation of ventricle muscles
ST segment lasts from the end of the S wave to beginning of T wave

98
Q

Electrocardiogram- PR Interval

A

The time between the start of the P wave and the start of the QRS complex. It is the time taken for the excitation to move from the atria to the ventricle.

99
Q

Calculating heart rate

A

60/ length of cycle
Length of cycle - time between equivalent points Eg. R to R

100
Q

Abnormal traces

A
  • a person with atrial fibrillation has rapid heart rate and may lack a P wave
  • Person who had a heart attack may have a wide QRS complex
  • Person with enlarged ventricle walls may have QRS complex showing greater voltage change
  • Changes in height of ST segment and T wave may be related to insufficient blood being delivered to heart muscle eg. Atheroclerosis

Biology🔬🧬 (11 decks)

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